1、11. Pragmatics is the study of language in use. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaningPragmatics is the study of contextual meaningPragmatics is the study of the e
2、xpression of relative distance.Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.2. Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which sequences are well-formed.3. Semantics is the study of
3、the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how words literally connect to things.4. Deixis 指示语 is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means pointing via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this poin
4、ting is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis (such as, me, you), or location via spatial deixis (such as here, there), or time via
5、 temporal deixis (such as now, then).5. Proximal terms 近指 are typically interpreted in terms of the speakers location, or the deictic center 指示中心. this, there, now, then near speaker6. Distal terms 远指 can simply indicate away from speaker, but, in some languages, can be used to distinguish between n
6、ear addressee and away from both speaker and addressee.7. Person deixis 人称指示语 clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified 例证 by the pronouns for first person, second person, and third person./ forms used to point to people, “me”you”8. Expressions which indicate addressee higher stat
7、us are described as honorifics 敬语.9. The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimes described as social deixis./forms used to indicate relative social status10. A distinction between forms used for familiar versus a non-familiar ad
8、dressee in some languages. This is known as the T/V distinction.用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫 T-V distinction。此概念由 1960 年的学者 Brown 和 Gilman 提出，他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态：T 形态（T-form）和 V 形态（V-form） ，前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、关系亲密的人之间使用，后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用11. exclusive we (speaker plus other(s), excluding addressee)；inclusive we
9、 (speaker and addressee included).12. spatial deixis 空间指示语 - the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Eg, here, there/ forms used to point to location.13. Yonder那边 (more distant from speaker) hither这边 (to this place) thence从那里 (from that place) 14. deictic projection 指示投射 manip
10、ulate speakers location eg: I am not here now./speakers acting as if they are somewhere else.15. psychological distance 心理距离 I dont like that. it is invested with meaning in a context by a speaker./speakers marking of how close or distant something is perceived 感知 to be.16. temporal deixis 时间指示 Back
11、 in an hour. the coming week./ forms used to point to location in time17. It is clear that the present tense is the proximal form 近端形式 and the past tense is the distal form 远端形式. if-clauses18. In temporal deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to communicate not only distant from current time
12、, but also distant from current reality or facts.19. Discourse deixis/ textual deixis 语篇指示语 “the use of expressions within some utterance to refer to some portion部分 of the discourse that contains that utterance (including the utterance itself)” This is what he did to me. He 2ripped 撕扯 my shirt and h
13、it me on the nose20. We might best think of reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.21. Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speakers goals (for example, to identify something) and the speakers beliefs (i.e. c
14、an the listener be expected to know that particular something?) in the use of language.22. Those linguistic forms are referring expressions 所指词语, linguistic form which enables a listener, or reader, to identify something. which can be proper nouns 专有名词 (for example, Shakespear, Cathy Revuelto, Hawai
15、i), noun phrases 名词短语 which are definite (for example, the author, the singer, the island), or indefinite (for example, a man, a woman, a beautiful place), and pronouns 代词 (for example, he, her, it , them ).23. Inference 推断 不在了- 死了24. attributive use 归属性用法 using an expression to identify someone or
16、something without being committed to the existence of an actual person or thing. meaning whoever/whatever fits the description. Theres a man waiting for you.不确定的25. referential use 指称性用法 using an expression to identify someone or something when the person or thing is assumed to be known. whereby I a
17、ctually have a person in mind and, instead of using her name or some other description . He wants to marry a woman with lots of money(The word a could be replaced by any) 确定的26. name & referents 对象There appears to be a pragmatic connection between proper names 专有名词 and objects that will be conventio
18、nally associated, within a socio-culturally defined community, with those names. Using a proper name referentially to identify any such object invites the listener to make the expected inference (for example, from name of writer to book by writer) and thereby show himself or herself to be a member o
19、f the same community as the speaker.a. Brazil wins World Cup. Brazil-soccer teamb. Japan wins first round of trade talks. Japan-government27. The linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying the referring expression./ the linguistic environment in which a word is used.28. The referring expression a
20、ctually provides a range of reference 所指范围, that is, a number of possible referents.29. Co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used. The physical environment, or context (physical environment in which a word is used), is perhaps more easily recognized
21、 as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.30. Reference is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identified an ob
22、ject or person will be interpreted as the speaker intended.31. The definite noun phrases such as, the man, the cat, the woman and the pronouns such as, it, he, her, they, are examples of subsequent reference 后续参考 to already introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric reference照应前项的参考, or anap
23、hora. In technical terms, the second of subsequent 随后的 expression is anaphor (the word used to maintain reference to someone or something already mentioned) and the initial expression used to identify someone or something is the antecedent 前情. Pell and slice six potatoes 前情 . Put them 照应前项的参考 in col
24、d salted water.32. And it is used first and is difficult to interpret until the full noun phrase is presented in the next line. This pattern is technically known as cataphora (the use of a word to introduce someone or something that via more fully identified later)回指 下指, and is much less common than
25、 anaphora.I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in the middle of the path.33. When the interpretation requires us to identify an entity and no linguistic expression in present, it is called zero anaphora, or ellipsis 省略. The use of zero anaphora as means of maintainin
26、g reference clearly creates an expectation that the listener will be able to infer who or what the speaker intends to identify. Cook?for three minutesU4 书34. Tautology 同意反复 赘言(an apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself)clearly the 3speaker intends to communicate more
27、 than is said.business is business or boys will be boys35. That something must be more than just what the words mean. It is an additional conveyed meaning, called an implicature 含义 . The implicature intended in this context.书后 business is business or boys will be boys36. cooperative principle make y
28、our conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchanging in which you are engaged. 书后Quantity Make your contribution as informative is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contrib
29、ution more informative than is required.QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevantManner Be perspicuous 清晰明白的.Avoid obscurity 模糊 of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief (avoid u
30、nnecessary prolixity 啰嗦)Be orderly.37. There are certain kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to 坚持 the principles. These kinds of expressions are called hedges. (闪烁其辞,模棱两可) 书后. He couldnt live without her, I guess.38. When no special knowledge i
31、s required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed meaning, it is called a generalized conversational implicature. 书后 I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looked over the fence.39. A number of other generalized conversational implicatures are commonly communicated on the basis of s
32、cale of values and are consequently known as scalar implicatures.等级含义 Im studying linguistics and Ive completed some(not all, most many) of the required courses. The basis of scalar implicature is that, when any form in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated
33、.40. Most of the time, our conversations take place in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Such inferences are required to worked out the conveyed meanings which result from particularized conversational implicatures. 书后 Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party toni
34、ght? Tom: My parents are visiting.46. Politeness concerns a relationship between two participants whom we may call self and other. Speakers also show politeness to third parties, who may or may not be present in the speech situation47. I. Tact Maxim 得体准则 a. Minimize cost to other b. Maximize benefit
35、 to other I can lend you my carII. Generosity Maxim 慷慨准则 a. Minimize benefit to self b. Maximize cost to self Could I borrow this electric drill?III. Approbation Maxim 赞许准则 a. Minimize dispraise 指责 of other b. Maximize praise of other A: Her performance was outstanding!B: Yes, wasnt it!IV. Modesty M
36、axim 谦逊准则 a. Minimize praise of self b. Maximize dispraise of self How stupid of me!V. Agreement Maxim 一致准则 a. Minimize disagreement between self and other b. Maximize agreement between self and otherA: A referendum 公民投票 will satisfy everybody.B: Yes, definitely.VI. Sympathy Maxim 同情准则 a. Minimize antipathy 反感 between self and other b. Maximize sympathy between self and other. Im sorry to hear about your cat.A: English is a difficult language to learn.4B: True, but the grammar is quite easy.
