1、Introduction to Linguistics Chapter 3: Morphology,Instructor: LIU Hongyong,Review: Phonology vs. Phonetics,Both Phonetics and phonology can be generally described as the study of human speech sounds. Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and ho
2、w they are interpreted by hearers. Phonology is the study investigating the organization of speech sounds in a particular language.True or false: Allophones never appear in minimal pairs.,Assignment 2: Phonetics & Phonology (Due date: Oct. 30, 2009),1. P.31 Exercise 6 2. P.32 Exercise 7 3. Follow th
3、e flowchart (p.91), and do the required phonological analyses. a. Sindhi b. English,Morphology (形态学),Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words（词的内部结构） (morphological structure of words)& processes/rules of word formation （构词法）(morphological processes of word-formation),Internal stru
4、cture of words and rules for word formation,1. Internal structure disapprove = dis + approve2. Rules for word formation disapprove *approvedis dis+V V *V+disV,Classification of words: Open class and closed class,1. Open class words: or content words, to which new words can be regularly added Nouns,
5、verbs, adjectives , adverbs2. Closed class words: or “grammatical” or “functional”words, to which new words are not usually added Conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns,Definition,Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.,Morpheme (语素）
6、,The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (lexical and grammatical meaning) A morpheme must have a meaning, and it is the smallest unit of meaning (the smallest sound-meaning union which cannot be further analyzed into smaller units),Morpheme vs. Phoneme,A phoneme is a phonological
7、unit (normally a sound) with contrastive value, which means replacing one sound with the other in a word can change the words meaning. 但是phoneme本身不具有意义。 pit: p i t bit: b i t,/p/与/b/是不同的两个phoneme，因为如果将pit中的/p/换成/b/，那么pit就变成了bit，词的意义发生了根本性的改变。但是这并不是说/p/或者/b/具有意义。,Morpheme vs. Syllable,The word lady c
8、an be divided into two syllables (la.dy), but it consists of just one morpheme, because a syllable has nothing to do with meaning. The word disagreeable can be divided into five syllables (dis.a.gree.a.ble), but it consists of only three morphemes (dis+agree+able). The word books contains only one s
9、yllable, but it consists of two morphemes (book+s) (Notice: the morpheme s has a grammatical meaning Plural),The internal structure of words,Words can have an internal structure, i.e. they are decomposable into smaller meaningful parts. These smallest meaningful units we call morphemes. read+er re+r
10、ead en+able dark+enMary+s print+ed cat+s go+es,Lexical or Grammatical,Genitive case,Past tense,Plural marker,3rd singular Present-tense,grammatical/inflectional morpheme,books /-s/ pigs /-z/ boxes /-iz/A morph is a physical form representing a certain morpheme in a language. Sometimes different morp
11、hs may represent the same morpheme; i.e., a morpheme may take different forms. If so, they are called allomorphs of that morpheme.,Morpheme, Morph, Allomorph,two different spelling forms， and three different phonological forms, but these different forms represent the same grammatical meaning Plural)
12、,Complementary Distribution,Allomorphs are morphs in complementary distribution; i.e. they are never found in identical contexts. The choice of allomorph used in a given context is normally based on the properties of the neighboring sounds.Example: The third person singular verb suffix and the plura
13、l nominal suffix s in English,s,z,iz,morpheme,morph,morph,morph,allomorphs,PLURAL,Complementary Distribution,morpheme negative morpheme in-morph1: im morph2: in morph3: inimpossible indecent incompleteimp- ind- ik-,bilabial stop,velar nasal,alveolar stop,allomorphs,bilabial nasal,alveolar stop,velar
14、 stop,Classification of Morphemes,Morphemes can be classified in various ways. free or bound root or affix inflectional or derivational,Free and Bound Morphemes,We can divide reader into read and er. However, we cannot split read into smaller morphemes. This means that the word read is itself a sing
15、le morpheme. A morpheme which can stand alone as a word is called a free morpheme. By contrast, -er has to combine with other morphemes. So it is a bound morpheme.,Root, stem & affix,nature,natural,naturalist,naturalistic,naturalism,unnatural,Stem: a root plus affixes,Affixes: bound morphemes which
16、attach to roots or stems.,Root: the basic morpheme which provides the central meaning in a word,simple word,Complex Word,nature + al = natural,un + nature + al = unnatural,Base,Linguists sometimes use the word “Base” to mean any root or stem to which an affix is attached. In this example, nature, na
17、tural, and unnaturally would all be considered bases.,nature + al = natural,un + nature + al = unnatural,un + nature + al + ly = unnaturally,Root/base,affix,Stem/base,complex word,Stem/base,affix,. . . .,nature,-al,-ist,affix,bound root morphemes,-ceive: receive; perceive; conceive; deceive-mit: per
18、mit; commit; transmit; admit; remit; submit,All mophemes are bound or free. Affixes are bound morphemes. Root morphemes, can be bound or free.,ceive was once a word in Latin to take, but in Modern English, it is no longer a word, so it is not a free morpheme.,Example of bound root,revive vitamin vit
19、al vivacious vivid,viv-id: having the quality of life,re-vive: to live again, to bring back to life,vit-amin: life medicine,Latin root viv-/vit- meaning “life” or “to live”.,vit-al: full of life,viv-acious: full of life,Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes,Affixes can be divided into inflectional
20、 morphemes and derivational morphemes. This reflects two major morphological (word building) processes:,Derivation,Inflection,Helps to make new lexical words,Helps to wrap lexical words for various grammatical functions,Inflectional Morphemes,Inflectional morphemes do not change grammatical category
21、 of the base to which they are attached. They do not change the meaning of the base. They only carry relevant grammatical information, e.g. plural. Thus, book and books are both nouns referring to the same kind of entity. The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed. NO new ones have been a
22、dded since 1500.,Examples of Inflectional Affixes,Derivational Morphemes,Derivational morphemes form new wordseither by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attachedkind unkind; obey disobeyaccurate inaccurate; act reactcigar cigarette; book booklet or by changing the grammatical categ
23、ory (part of speech) of the basekind kindly; act active activityable enable; damp dampen care careful; dark darkness,Examples of Derivational Affixes,Sum: Inflection and Derivation,Derivational morphemes are used to create new lexical items (lexemes). Inflectional morphemes only contribute to the in
24、flectional paradigm of the lexemes, which lists all the word-forms of the lexeme.,morpheme,Free (自由),free root (自由词根),Bound (粘着),bound root (粘着词根),inflectional affixes (语法性后缀),derivational affixes (词汇性后缀),affixes,Summary,Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit. Mo
25、rphemes can be classified into free morphemes and bound morphemes, roots and affixes, inflectional and derivational. The concept of morpheme is important in explaining word-formation processes. In English the most central and productive word-formation processes are compounding and affixation. Compou
26、nding refers to the word-formation process of combining two free morphemes, and affixation refers to the word-formation process of adding affixes to roots.,Internal structure of a word,The internal structure of a word is hierarchical rather than flat. unbelievable un+believe+able*un+believe +ableun
27、+ believe +able,Morphological Complexity,regionalize: region+al+ize region al izeregionalizeVregionalA izeVregionN alA,This tree shows the internal morphological structure of the word,Morphological Complexity,reunificationreunificationNreunifyV ationNre unifyV,This tree represents the application of
28、 two morphological rules: re+VV 2. V+ationN,Word structure: which is correct?,Prefix un- can mean to do the reverse of and combine with a verb to form a new verb.unloadableAunloadV ableAun loadV,unloadableAun loadableAloadV ableA,un+VV V+ableA,V+ableA un+AA,Major word-formation processes,Affixation
29、(Derivation) Compounding Endocentric compounds Exocentric compounds,Affixation,Affixation involves adding affixes to a root morpheme (or a stem) to- derive a new word (derivation: teach-er)- to realize certain grammatical function (inflection: boy-s)An affix is a bound morpheme. There are four types
30、 of affixes: prefix, suffix, infix, and circumfix.,Prefix,Suffix,Infix,Circumfix,In some cases, a prefix and a suffix act together to surround a base. The two realize a single morpheme, and they are classed together as a circumfix. Data from Germanfilm.en to film ge.film.t filmed frag.en to ask ge.f
31、rag.t askedThe circumfix get is taken to be a single affix, and it is a discontinuous morph.,Inflection and Derivation,If derivation and inflection co-occurs, derivations are inner, closer to the stem, and inflections are outer, furthest from the stem.,pays-ment,payment-s,Review: Word structure of d
32、erived words Affixation is ordered,happiness,happy,-ness,A,Aff,happiness,N,The suffix determines grammatical category of the newly derived word. So it serves as head of the word.,(N),unhappiness,Aff,A,un-happy,A,un-,happy,-ness,N,N,It selects an adjective word. It does not change the grammatical cat
33、egory of the root.,head of the newly derived word,unhappiness,* un - happy - ness ,happy,-ness,A,Aff (N),N,un-,Aff,No relation can be established to form one structural unit (constituent). The affix “un-” selects an adjectival (A) root/base, but not a nominal (N) one.,* ,Compounding,Compounding is a
34、 word-formation process consisting of combining two or more roots to form a compound . airmail air force air-conditioner flowerpot flower pot flower-pot airline air line air-line girlfriend girl friend girl-friend,Spelling is not a reliable criterion to determine the compound status.,Endocentric Com
35、pounds,Semantically, an endocentric compound indicates a sub-grouping within the class of entities that the head denotes. Thus, a schoolboy is a kind of boy, a bedroom is a kind of room, and a teapot is a kind of pot.The first root in each case functions as a modifier of the headwhich specifies the
36、meaning of the head more precisely.,向心複合詞,Head 心,Examples of Endocentric Compound,Exocentric Compounds,Compounds need not always contain a head. Such compounds are called exocentric compounds. The meaning of an exocentric compound is opaque. It is impossible to work out what an exocentric compound m
37、eans from the sum of the meanings of its parts.,異心複合詞,Examples of Exocentric Compounds (English),Pickpocket: it is not a pocket, but a person who picks things out of others pocket illegally. Blue collar: it is not a collar, but a person who wears blue-collared uniform at work. Laptop: it is not the
38、top of ones lap, but rather the portable computer. Blockhead: it is neither a kind of block nor a kind of head but rather an idiot. Turncoat: it is not a kind of coat but a renegade.,Minor word-formation processes,Initialism and acronyms Clipping Blending Back formation Words from proper names Redup
39、lication,Initialisms,Initialism is the making of a new word by using the first letters of words, and the new word is called an initialism. When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters of the alphabet, they may be called alphabetisms. When initialisms are pronounced like independent
40、lexical items, they are called acronyms.,More examples of acronyms,Clipping,Clipping involves the type of word-formation device in which only part of the stem is retained. The beginning may be retained as in lab (from laboratory), the end as in phone (from telephone), the middle as in flu (from infl
41、uenza).,More examples of Clipping,Blending,A blend may be defined as a new lexeme built from parts of two (or more) words or a word plus a part of another word, for example, brunch (breakfast + lunch); smog (smoke + mog). Words formed in this way are called blends. Blending = clipping + compounding.
42、,More examples of blending,smoke + fog smog Oxford + Cambridge Oxbridge motor + hotel motel slang + language slanguage American + Indian Amerind slim + gynmastics slimnastics,Back-formation,Which word is older? Which word do we have first?,Back-formation,Back-formation is the making of a new word fr
43、om an older word which is mistakenly thought to be its derivative. It involves the shortening of a longer word by cutting away an imagined/supposed derivational suffix.,editoredit,edit + or edit,But how can I judge which is right?,The word edit is often cited as an example of back-formation. In othe
44、r words, edit is not the source of editor, as dive is not the source of diver, which is the expected derivational pattern; rather, the opposite is the case. Edit in the sense “to prepare for publication,” first recorded in 1793, comes from editor, first recorded in 1712 in the sense “one who edits.”
45、,Diachronic evidence (历时证据): editor: first recoded in 1712 edit: first recoded in 1793, almost a hundred years later.,More examples of back-formation,Words from Proper Names,Another minor word-formation process is the creation of new words from proper names. The transition from proper names to commo
46、n nouns is a gradual one. Proper names Peoples name Name of places Book names,A good example: sandwich,It originates from John Montagu (1718-92), Fourth Earl of Sandwich. He was so fond of gambling that he would not leave the gambling table to have a proper meal. He was said to eat while playing. Later, people used his name to refer to all similar food.,
