1、AcademicWritingA practical guide for studentsStephen BaileyPart 1:The Writing Process 1Student introduction 11. Background to writing Writing Foundations 32. Developing plans from titles 63. Evaluating a text Reading and Note-Making 94. Understanding purpose and register 125. Selecting key points 15
2、6. Note-making 187. Paraphrasing 218. Summary writing 239. Combining sources 2610. Planning a text Writing Stages 2911. Organising paragraphs 3212. Organising the main body 3613. Introductions 3914. Conclusions 4215. Re-reading and re-writing 4516. Proof-reading 48Part 2:Elements of Writing 51Studen
3、t introduction 511. Cause and effect Flooding results fromheavy rain 532. Cohesion The former/the latter 553. Comparisons His work is more interestingthan hers 574. Denitions An assignment is a task given to students 605. Discussion Benets and drawbacks 626. Examples Many departments, for instanceme
4、dicine, 657. Generalisations Computers are useful machines 678. Numbers The guresin the report 709. References and quotations As Donner (1997) pointed out 7310. Style It is generally agreed that 7611. Synonyms Interpretation/explanation 7912. Visual information Graphs, charts and tables 81ContentsIn
5、troduction viPart 3:Accuracy in Writing 85Student introduction 851. Abbreviations i.e./WTO 872. Adverbs currently/eventually 893. Articles a/an/the 914. Caution Poor education tends tolead to crime 935. Conjunctions furthermore/however 956. Formality in verbs speed up/accelerate 987. Modal verbs may
6、/could/should 1008. Nationality language Spain/Spanish 1029. Nouns and adjectives efciency/efcient 10410. Nouns: countable and uncountable business/businesses 10611. Passives The gases were discovered 10812. Prexes and sufxes undergraduate/graduate 11013. Prepositions The purpose ofthis paper 11314.
7、 Prepositions after verbs concentrate on 11515. Punctuation ? : 11716. Referring verbs Martins (1975) claimedthat 11917. Relative pronouns that/which 12118. Singular/ plural The team is/are 12319. Tenses Few scientists dispute/have disputed 12520. Time words and phrases sincethe nineteenth century 1
8、28Part 4:Writing Models 131Student introduction 1311. Formal letters Letter layout and letters of application 1332. CVs Layout and phrasing of a curriculum vitae 1353. Designing and reporting surveys Survey reports and questionnaire design 1374. Comparison essay A comparison of classroom learning wi
9、thinternet-based teaching 1395. Discursive essay Education is the most important factor innational development Discuss 141Writing Tests 143Answers 146Sources 191vi ContentsAcademic Writing is designed for anybody who is studying (or planning tostudy) at English-medium colleges and universities and h
10、as to write essaysand other assignments for exams or coursework. International studentsespecially nd the written demands of their courses extremely challenging.On top of the complexity of the vocabulary of academic English they have tolearn a series of conventions in style, referencing and organisat
11、ion.Academic Writing is a exible course that allows students to work either with ateacher or by themselves, to practise those areas which are most important fortheir studies. Many students nd that they have very limited time to preparefor their courses, and that writing is only one of several skills
12、 they need tomaster. The structure of the book has been made as simple as possible to allowusers to nd what they want quickly.The course is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice for students.Skills are developed from writing at the paragraph level, through organisingthe various sections of
13、an essay, to discussing statistics and describing charts.This book is divided into four parts:1) The Writing Process guides students from the initial stage ofunderstanding an essay title, through reading and note-making, to theorganisation of an essay and the nal stage of proof-reading. 2) Elements
14、of Writing deals with the key skills that are needed for all typesof assignments, such as making denitions and giving references, and isorganised alphabetically.3) Accuracy in Writing gives remedial practice in those areas that studentstend to nd most confusing, such as denite articles and relativep
15、ronouns, again in alphabetical order.4) Writing Models gives examples of the types of writing that studentscommonly need, including letters and survey reports.All units are cross-referenced and a comprehensive key is provided at the end.There is also a Writing Tests section for assessing level and p
16、rogress.Although every effort has been made to make Academic Writing as useful andaccurate as possible, if students or teachers have any comments, criticisms orsuggestions I would be very pleased to hear from them.Stephen BIntroductionInstructions to students are printed like this:Complete the sente
17、nces with suitable words from the box below.Cross-references in margins look like this:2.11 SynonymsThis means: refer to the unit on synonyms in Part 2 (Unit 11).cross referenceStudent IntroductionMost academic courses in English-medium colleges and universities useessays to assess students work, bo
18、th as coursework, for which a deadlineone or two months ahead may be given, and in exams, when an essayoften has to be completed in an hour. The process of writing essays for coursework assignments can be shownin a owchart:1. The Writing ProcessPart 1, The Writing Process, examines each of these sta
19、ges in turn. Ifstudents are concerned only with preparing for exam writing they couldomit the reading and note-making stages, but if they have sufcient timethey should work through every unit, preferably in the order given, foreach stage builds on the previous one.Although it is essential to underst
20、and the basic writing process, at thesame time it will be useful to be aware of the elements which contributeto good academic writing. When practising note-making, for example, it ishelpful to be aware of the conventions of referencing, and so studentsshould use the cross-reference boxes to look at
21、the unit on References andQuotations in Part 2.Understand essay title/requirementsAssess reading texts choose most appropriateSelect relevant areas of texts Keep record for referencesMake notes on relevant areas, using paraphrasing different writers have examinedthe availability of capital, the grow
22、th of urbanpopulations and the political andd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . religious climate. All of these may have played a part, but rstit is necessary to consider the precise nature of what is meant byIndustrial Revolution.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industry had existed fo
23、r thousands of years prior to theeighteenth century, but before this time society as a wholeremained agricultural. With the arrival of the ironworks andcotton mills whole towns were dominated by industrial activity.At the same time, agriculture itself went through signicantchanges which produced mor
24、e food for the growing urbanpopulation.5. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs?Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divideit into a suitable number of paragraphs.INVESTMENTMost people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected nancial
25、difculties and providethem with security. Different people, however, tend to have different requirements, so that a 25-year-old just leaving university would be investing for the long-term, whereas a 60-year-old whohad just retired would probably invest for income. Despite these differences, certain
26、 principlesapply in most cases. The rst issue to consider is risk. In general, the greater the degree of riskin investment, the higher the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly rise or fall in value,typically have a higher yield than bonds, which offer good security but pay only about 5%.Th
27、erefore all investors must decide how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.Diversication must also be considered in an investment strategy. Wise investors usually seekto spread their investments across a variety of geographical and business sectors. As accuratepredictions of the fu
28、ture are almost impossible, it is best to have as many options as possible.A further consideration is investor involvement. Some investors opt for a high degree ofinvolvement and want to buy and sell regularly, constantly watching the markets. Others want toinvest and then forget about it. Personal
29、involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, andmany prefer to leave the management of their portfolios to professional fund managers.Writing Foundations 51.11 Organising Paragraphs 1.12 Organising the MainBodycross reference6 Part 1: The Writing Process2. Developing Plans from TitlesMost written
30、 work begins with a title, and students must be quite clear whatquestion the title is asking before starting to plan the essay and read around thetopic. This unit deals with analysing titles and making basic plans. 1. When preparing to write an essay, it is essential to identify the mainrequirements
31、 of the title. You must be clear about what areas yourteacher wants you to cover. This will then determine the organisation ofthe essay. For example:Academic qualications are of little practical benet in the real world Discuss.Here the key word is discuss. Discussing involves examining the benetsand
32、 drawbacks of something.Underline the key words in the following titles and consider whatthey are asking you to do.a) Dene Information Technology (IT) and outline its main applications in medicine.b) Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal systems of Britain and the USA.c) Evaluate the
33、effect of mergers in the motor industry in the last ten years.d) Trace the development of primary education in Britain. Illustrate some of the issuescurrently facing this sector.Note that most of the titles above have two terms in the title. You mustdecide how much importance to give to each section
34、 of the essay (e.g. title(a) might demand 10% for the denition and 90% for the outline).2. The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles. Match the terms to the denitions on the right.Analyse Give a clear and simple accountDescribe Make a proposal and support itExamine Deal with a compl
35、ex subject by giving the main pointsState Divide into sections and discuss each criticallySuggest Give a detailed accountSummarise Look at the various parts and their relationships3. Almost all essays, reports and articles have the same basic pattern oforganisation:IntroductionMain bodyConclusionThe
36、 structure of the main body depends on what the title is asking you todo. In the case of a discuss type essay, the main body is often divided intotwo parts, one looking at the advantages of the topic and the otherlooking at the disadvantages.A plan for the rst example might look like this:1.10 Plann
37、ing a Text2.5 Discussioncross referenceAcademic qualications are of little practical benet in the real world Discuss.Introduction variety of different qualicationsdifferent methods of assessmentBenets international standards for professions, e.g. doctorsstudents have chance to study latest theoriesq
38、ualications lead to better salaries and promotionDrawbacks many successful people dont have qualicationsmany qualied people dont have jobsConclusion qualications are useful but not guarantees of success4. Write a plan for one of the titles in (1).titleintroductionmain bodyconclusion5. Teachers often
39、 complain that students write essays that do not answerthe question set.Consider the following titles and decide which sections should beincluded in each essay.a) Describe the growth of the European Union since 1975 and suggest itslikely form by 2010.A short account of European history 19002000An an
40、alysis of candidates for membership before 2010A discussion of the current economic situation in EuropeAn outline of the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and nowb) Summarise the arguments in favour of privatisation and evaluate itsrecord in Britain.A case study of electricity privatisationAn analy
41、sis of less successful privatisationsA study of major privatisations in the UKA discussion of the benets achieved by privatisationc) To what extent is tuberculosis (TB) a disease of poverty?A denition of TBWriting Foundations 7A report on the spread of TB worldwideA case study showing how TB relates
42、 to social classA discussion of new methods of treating the diseased) Nursery education is better for children than staying at home withmother Discuss.A study of the growth of nurseries since 1995A report on the development of children who remain at home untilveA discussion comparing speaking abilit
43、y in the two groups ofchildren An outline of the increase of women in the labour market since 1960e) Compare studying in a library with using the internet. Will the formerbecome redundant?The benets of using booksThe drawbacks of internet sourcesPredicted IT developments in the next 15 yearsAn outli
44、ne of developments in library services since 19456. Underline the key terms in the following titles and decide what you arebeing asked to do.Example:Relate the development of railways to the rise of nineteenth-centuryEuropean nationalism.Relate means to link one thing to another. The title is asking
45、 for links to bemade between the growth of railways in Europe in the nineteenthcentury and the political philosophy of nationalism. The writer mustdecide if there was a connection or not.a) Identify the main causes of rural poverty in China.b) Calculate the likely change in coffee consumption that w
46、ould resultfrom a 10% fall in the price of coffee beans.c) Classify the desert regions of Asia and suggest possible approaches tohalting their spread.8 Part 1: The Writing ProcessReading and Note-Making 93. Evaluating a TextHaving understood the title and made an outline plan, your next step is prob
47、ablyto read around the subject. Although you may be given a reading list, it is stillvital to be able to assess the usefulness of journal articles and books. Time spentlearning these skills will be repaid by saving you from using unreliable or irrelevantmaterials. 1. When reading a text, it is impor
48、tant to ask yourself questions about thevalue of the text. Is this text fact or opinion? If fact, is it true? If opinion,do I agree? Can this writer be trusted? These questions can be shown ina diagram:Start here2. Read the following sentences and decide rst if they are fact or opinion.Then decide i
49、f the factual sentences are true, and if you agree with theopinions in the other sentences.Opinion Agree or True oror fact? disagree? false?a) The USA has the biggest economy in the worldb) Shakespeare wrote textbooksc) Shakespeare was a great writerd) Smoking can be dangerouse) Too many people (32%) smoke in Britainf) 95% of criminals cannot readg) Poor education causes 75% of crimeFACTTRUSTWORTHYAND USEFULTRUE ORFALSE?FALSETRUEDISAGREEAGREE ORDISAGREE?OPINIONFACT OROPINION?AGREE3. It can be s
