1、Review: 2 Kinds of Meaning,S_ meaning concerns the meaning of the utterance itself, regardless of context. P_ meaning is the meaning expressed by the hearer in the utterance. It often depends on context.,Review: Sentence and Utterance meaning (句子意义和话语意义),Sentence meaning is more abstract, more close
2、ly resembling _ meaning.Utterance meaning, more concrete, more closely resembles _ meaning.,Grices distinction,Grice used the term “natural meaning” and “non-natural meaning or meaning-nn)”, The latter is also called “speakers meaning”.Grice, in his explanation of non-natural meaning, believed that
3、if the speaker wants to express the non-natural meanings through utterances, the following conditions should be satisfied:,Conditions,(1) Speakers (S) intended utterances (U) to cause some effect (Z) in recipient H （说话人S意欲使话语U对受话人H产生某种效果) (2) S intended (I) to be achieved simply by H recognizing tha
4、t intention (I) （说话人S意欲通过受话人H认识到上述意图I以达此目的) Grice, 1957,转引自Levinson 1983:16),Grices Idea,Grice regards the communication process as the process of the 1) expression of intention by the speaker; and 2) recognition of intention by the listener.语言交际过程是说话人表达自己意图和受话人领会这一意图,Grices idea,Grice believes that
5、 the sentence meaning is time free. (句子意义没有时间性)The sentence meaning is not always the same as the intention of the speaker in the use of this sentence in particular context. 句子意义并不总是和说话人在某一场合通过使用这一句子所要表达的句子相一致.“He is a fine friend”. The meaning is simple, but may be sarcastic also! (非自然意义或说话人意义),Ref
6、erence and Inference,Chapter 3,A Band: Gentle Jesters, Im really not too familiar with the “Gentle Jesters“. In fact, I cant really remember any of their songs. Their songs dont have lyrics, so they cant be sung. Their music is hard to describe; its not punk, but its not blues or metal either. They
7、havent been playing together for more than four or five years. To this day, they have never charged for a show! No one ever leaves their shows disappointed. Actually, they are currently lacking a drummer. Do you think I should audition to be their drummer? I cant audition . . . because they dont exi
8、st!,Reference,狗 and dog both refer to the same thing. Senses of 狗 and dog are similar, not the same, especially in metaphors or in idioms： Does 狗不理 = Dogs dont care? No Does underdog = 狗的下面？No, it means roughly黑马 (or 弱者)It depends on speakers and context!,Reference,We can say that referential uses o
9、f language: “convey information about real phenomena”Non-referential uses of language, therefore, do not apply to phenomena in the world.,Reference: Frege,Frege /弗雷格 said, regarding sense and reference:2 senses:Morning Star Evening Star1 reference:Venus /金星,REFERENCE:The object that we refer to. SEN
10、SE:The way we refer to the object,Reference: Frege,Consider the two senses expressed by: my best friend and my ex-neighbor. In fact, they refer to the same referent. Calling him Matt would refer to the same person. So would using 大熊?,Inference,We often say, “reading between the lines.” You say absen
11、t. I infer skipping class.(more indirect inference) You say 不在了. I infer 死了.(more direct inference) A: Do you want to watch a movie, Robin? B1: Im sorry, I need to prepare my lessons. B2: Oh; well . . . I have something to do.What can we infer from B1？ and B2?,Inference,Imagine that you want to intr
12、oduce me. Who do you say that I am? Robin, that guy Robin Day, 戴罗宾, Mr. Day, Bird, 萝卜, Robin Andrew Glen Day, he, Brother Day, 宾宾, Honey, Ralph, and Beaner are all ways that people have referred to me.You need to infer which is MOST appropriate. Consider our relationship and the audience as well.,An
13、 Inference example,We can see increasingly LESS inference: That one guy . . . The author we studied The master of English poetry Anne Hathaways husband Author of Romeo and Juliet William Shakespeare,Referential and Attributive Uses,What does this sentence mean? 我想嫁一个哈尔滨人。 In English, any specifies a
14、ttributive usage. (Chinese, however, is rather ambiguous.)Relative pronouns act attributively.whatever = anything that whoever = anyone who wherever = at any place whenever = at any time,Names and Referents,Bertrand Russell said that names are “abbreviated descriptions.” So, Robin is a short form of
15、 Robin Andrew Glen Day, the guy from Omaha, USA who lives in Harbin, and is 30 years old and who is married to a beautiful lady.Consider common nouns with simple names.,Names and Referents,Book examples: Shakespeare, cheese sandwich, 10:30The strict semantic meaning of Mozart is extended to a pragma
16、tic meaning which includes whatever Mozart produced. Therefore, the utterances are freed from the grammatical restraints of Mozart.,Names and Referents,Any extra non-natural meaning used . . . is only valid because such a non-natural meaning is useful in differentiation. Give me the coffee. is very
17、simple. But, if youve been asked which flavor of ice-cream you would like . . . . another meaning is assumed.,Reference: Co-text,Co-text is simply “material that accompanies the referring expression.”For our purposes, we can think of context as EVERYTHING associated with a text and co-text as that p
18、resented IMMEDIATELY with the text.,Anaphoric Reference,Anaphors refer back to antecedents:John had a girlfriend. Then he married her. What are the anaphors? the Antecedents?Consider the following sentences meaning: I never kissed my wife before I married her.At that time, she was my girlfriend.,Cat
19、aphora,I dont think cataphora occurs in Chinese. In English, someone might say: “And then I saw hermy future wife.” This is interesting because the cataphor precedes its antecedent.,Zero Anaphora / Ellipsis,An object or required entity is missing! English examples:a) She always brushes before bed. b
20、) The cat was angry; I brushed too long. c) Baldness is fate telling you that you brush too hard. Can you think of a Chinese examples?,Homework,Pick an acquaintance and write five ways you would refer to that acquaintance. Pick any Chinese words (written very clearly) and write possible non-natural
21、meanings and their contexts.,Humorous examples,Question 1 : Can a man living in New York be buried in California? Answer: NO! Hes living in New York!Why is it funny? INFERENCEQuestion 2: Which football player has the biggest shoes? Answer: The one with the biggest feet!Why is it funny? ATTRIBUTIVE USAGE,
