1、尽管结构主义思潮的黄金时代是 20 世纪 60 年代,但它并不是在 60 年代才形成,也不是诞生于法国,它的历史可以追溯到 20 世纪初的岁月。当时西方有一部份学者对现代文化分工太细,只求局部、不讲整体的“ 原子论”倾向感到不满,他们渴望恢复自文艺复兴以来中断了的注重综合研究的人文科学传统,因此提出了“体系 论” 和“结构论”的思想,强调 从大的系统方面(如文化的各个分支或文学的各种体裁)来研究它们的结构和规律性。其中最有代表性的是奥地利哲学家路德维希维特根斯坦在逻辑哲学论 (1922)中所表达的见解:世界是由许多“状态”构成的总体,每一个“ 状态”是一条众多事物组成的锁链,它们处于确定的关系
2、之中,这种关系就是这个“状态”的结构,也就是我们的研究对象。这是一种最初的结构主义思想,它首先被运用到了语言学的研究上。 出生于瑞士的斐迪南德索绪尔是将结构主义思想运用到语言学研究的第一人,他在 长期的语言学研究中逐渐形成了一系列与 19 世纪在语言学研究中占统治地位的比较语言学的观点相对立的新观点。比较语言学把一些语言事实当作孤立静止的单位对待,只注意了它们的历史比较,而忽视了语言要素之间相互制约、相互依赖的关系;忽视了语言是一个系统的整体。索绪尔则把具体的语言行为(“ 言语” )和人 们在学习语言中所掌握的深 层体系(“语言”)区别开来,把语言看作是一个符号系统。产生意义的不是符号本身,而
3、是符号的组合关系。语言学是研究符号组合规律的学问。索绪尔使用的词虽然是“系统” 而不是“结构”,但意思是一样的。他把语言的特点看作是意义和声音之间的关系网络,纯粹的相互关系的结构,并把这种关系作为语言学研究的对象,这是结构主义语言学的主要理论原则。索绪尔的理论在他死后由他的学生整理出来以普通语言学的书名出版, 对结构主义思潮产生了深远的影响。索绪尔也因此被人们敬称为“结构主义之父 ”。1945 年法国人克劳德列维斯特劳斯发表了语言学的结构分析与人类学,第一次将结构主义语言学方面的研究成果运用到人类学上。他把社会文化现象视为一种深层结构体系来表现,把个别的习俗、故事看作是“ 语言”的元素。他对于
4、原始人的逻辑、图腾制度和神话所做的研究就是为了建立一种“具体逻辑” 。他不靠社会功能来说明个别习俗或故事,而是把它们看作一种“语言” 的元素,看作一种概念体系,因为人们正是通过这个体系来组织世界。他随后的一系列研究成果引起了其他学科对结构主义的高度重视,于是,到了 60 年代,许多重要学科都与结构主义发生了关系。一个如火如荼的结构主义时代到来了。 结构主义为什么能在 60 年代的法国流行起来并如日中天呢?其原因大概如特里 伊格 尔顿所说:“ 结构主义最好被看作既是我概述的社会和语言危机的表现,也是 对那种危机的反应。它从历史逃到语言这是一种讽刺行为,因为正如巴尔特所看到的,没有什么行动在历史上
5、能更有意义。 ” 战后的法国和其他曾经将版图延伸到国土之外其他土地上的老牌资本主义国家一样,因为第三世界国家的独立,法国的学者们已不能自由地出入曾经是他们殖民地的第三世界国家进行实地考察,重实地调查、轻理论分析的研究方法已不再适合他们,结构主义的出现,正好迎合了他们的需要。这大概也是结构主义的大师们看上去都是“ 一些不食人 间烟火的大学教授 ”的原因。另外,战后法国经济飞速恢复与发展,以“他人是我的地狱” 为宗旨的存在主义哲学同现实格格不入,人们对“个人”、“存在 ”、“自我意识”等等这些存在主义的概念失去了早先的热情和兴趣,结构主义在这种背景下作为存在主义的否定的思潮而兴起。结构主义认为:“
6、我” 、主体,既不是自己的中心,也不是世界的中心,这样一个中心,根本不存在。结构主义方法论结构主义不是一种单纯的传统意义上的哲学学说,而是一些人文科学和社会科学家在各自的专业领域里共同应用的一种研究方法,其目的就是试图使人文科学和社会科学也能像自然科学一样达到精确化、科学化的水平。 结构主义的方法有两个基本特征。首先是对整体性的强调。结构主义认为,整体对于部分来说是具有逻辑上优先的重要性。因为任何事物都是一个复杂的统一整体,其中任何一个组成部分的性质都不可能孤立地被理解,而只能把它放在一个整体的关系网络中,即把它与其它部分联系起来才能被理解。正如霍克斯所说:“在任何情境里、种因素的本质就其本身
7、而言是没有意义的,它的意义事实上由它和既定情境中的其他因素之间的关系所决定。” 再如索绪尔认为 ,“语言既是一个系统,它的各项要素都有连带关系,而且其中每项要素的价值都只能是因为有其他各项要素同时存在的结果。” 因此,对语言学的研究就应当从整体性、系统性的观点出发,而不应当离开特定的符号系统去研究孤立的词。列维 斯特劳斯也认为,社会生活是由经济、技术、政治、法律、 伦理、宗教等各方面因素构成的一个有意义的复杂整体,其中某一方面除非与其它联系起来考虑,否则便不能得到理解。所以,结构主义坚持只有通过存在于部分之间的关系才能适当地解释整体和部分。结构主义方法的本质和首要原则在于,它力图研究联结和结合
8、诸要素的关系的复杂网络,而不是研究一个整体的诸要素。 结构主义方法的另一个基本特征是对共时性的强调。强调共时性的研究方法,是索绪尔对语言学研究的一个有意义的贡献。索绪尔指出:“ 共时现象和历时现 象 毫无共同之 处:一个是同时要素间的关系,一个是一个要素在时间上代替另一个要素,是一种事件。” 索绪尔认为,既然语言是一个符号系统,系统内部各要素之间的关系是相互联系、同时并存的,因此作为符号系统的语言是共时性的。至于一种语言的历史,也可以看作是在一个相互作用的系统内部诸成分的序列。于是索绪尔提出一种与共时性的语言系统相适应的共时性研究方法,即对系统内同时存在的各成分之间的关系,特别是它们同整个系统
9、的关系进行研究的方法。在索绪尔的语言学中,共时性和整体观和系统性是相一致的,因此共时性的研究方法是整体观和系统观的必然延伸。 走近两位结构主义大师一1一 结构主义之父索绪尔 出生于瑞士的语言学家费迪南德索绪尔(18571913)一生最重要的阶段是他在 1906 年到 1911 年他去世前的几年间他在日内瓦大学讲授普通语言学的课程,建立起与传统语言学理论完全不同的语言学体系。在此之前他做的一切似乎都是为了这一事业作铺垫:他年轻时曾经在日内瓦大学和来比锡大学读书,并从事历史比较语言学的研究工作,于 1878 年完成了论印欧系语音元音的原始系统的著名论文,引起轰动。此后,他又在柏林大学和来比锡大学继
10、续深造,1881 年到巴黎的高等研究学院教授梵语,并兼任巴黎语言学学会秘书,建立起法兰西语言学派。他还来不及将他的讲稿编写成书就与世长辞。后来,他的学生们根据他的一部份手稿、材料和同学们的笔记,编辑整理成了普通语言学教程,于 1916 年出版,从此,他的语言学理论便以极大的冲击力和影响力被扩散到全世界,并渗透到各行各业的研究中。其影响正如美国学者戴维 罗比所说:“索绪尔的语言学理论是使语言学改变发展方向的最重要因素,它的强大影响使现代语言学在文学研究中的作用超越了纯粹文学语言问题而产生出有关整个文学甚至整个社会文化生活的性质和组织的新理论。” 由索绪尔的语言学理论引伸出来的一些普遍性的结构原则
11、,在日后成为结构主义思潮的一些重要方法论的基础,也就是说这些普遍性的语言学原则包含有结构主义的基本思想,这就是索绪尔对结构主义的最主要贡献。具体表现如下: 其一,索绪尔对语言和言语的划分引发出结构主义重分析结构的方法。索绪尔认为语言是第一性的,而言语是第二性的。语言是社会性的,是一种抽象记忆的产物,语言优于言语,言语的意义源于语言;语言不是如词典式的集合,而是一个整体,一个系统,一种规则的躯干,它是各种因素间关系的系统。而言语是个别性的,是创造的产物,是种受经验控制的线性形式,是一个特定制造的事件。正是因为索绪尔对语言和言语的划分,才产生了结构主义的一个无处不在的法则:“结构主 义者的最终 目
12、标是永恒的结构:个人的行为、感觉和姿态都纳入其中,并由此得到它们最终的本质。” 它也表明了结构主义的一个基本思想:语言即系统是一种自主的、内在化的、自我满足的体系,它不与外界的实体的事物发生关系。 其二,索绪尔对能指和所指的区分引 发了结构主义对“意义”的追求。与实证主义方法论的要求相比,结构主义者更感兴趣的是事实背后的意义,而不是事实本身。这是因索绪尔视语言自身是个符号系统引发而来的。索绪尔认为,声音和书写形式仅是传递意义的符号,任何符号如没有意义,它就不是语言。他的对于符号及其构成关系的强调,导致后人建立了“符号学” 。在符号学家看来,现实中任何东西如穿戴、人的行动等,都可视为符号,因而都
13、可建立一个有关穿戴、人的行动等的符号系统。索绪尔视语言为一种符号系统也是结构主义的一个基本思想:意义的构成只取决语言的各种关系(句段关系和联想关系),所谓语言,就是一个个相互依赖的要素(亦即能指所指)所组成的符号系统。 其三,从索 绪尔对 共时分析的追求引发出在特定时空中的定性研究法。共时分析是结构主义者最喜欢用的分析方法之一。结构主义的另一个基本思想也包含其中,即语言符号的识别,只能借助于它与其他语言符号的关系和差异。 事实上,后来的 结 构主义者正是把索绪尔的各种语言学原则泛化为一切事物的共同性特征,并且将能指与所指、语言和言语、共时性和历时性、句段关系和联想关系等一系列既互相联系又互相区
14、别的对立概念上升为一种固定的二项对立的关系,从而形成一种普遍的结构分析原则,并借用语言学的规则、术语去讨论一切社会文化现象。而索绪尔关于语言的符号性质、语言符号系统的内部规律更被用来对文学现象进行分析,用语言学原理对文学的功能系统作出解释,并以此为基础建立起结构主义诗学和叙事学。 一2一 结构人类学的缔造者克劳德列维 斯特劳斯 列维斯特劳斯 1908 年生于法国,是当代著名的哲学家、社会学家、神话学家和人类学家,也是法国结构主义的领袖人物。他早年就读于巴黎大学,1935年到巴西 圣保罗大学教授社会学,并用了时间对巴西的原始部落进行民俗学、人种学的调查考察。二战开始,他曾回法国服兵役,巴黎陷落后
15、,他旅居美国,结识了俄国形式主义和捷克结构主义的领袖人物、结构主义语言学家罗曼 雅各布森,在他的影响下,列维斯特劳斯把结构主 义语言学方法运用于人类学和神话学研究,用语言学的模式来解释亲属关系和神话结构,从而对结构主义运动产生了不可忽视的影响。他的大量著作;亲属关系的基本结构(1949)、热带的忧郁(1955)、结构人类学(1955)、野性的思维(1962)和神话学(四卷本)(19641971)奠定了把结构主义方法引入社会文化研究的重要基石。列维斯特劳斯认为,社会是由文化关系构成的,而文化关系则表现为各种文化活动,即人类从事的物质生产与精神思维活动。这一切活动都贯穿着一个基本的因素信码(符号)
16、,不同的思想型式或心态是这些信码的不同的排列和组合。他通过亲属关系、原始人的思维型式和神话系统所作的人类研究,试图找到对全人类(不同民族、不同时代)的心智普遍有效的思维结构及构成原则。他认为处于人类心智活动的深层的那个普遍结构是无意识地发生作用的。其结构主义方法主要有如下原则: 一一一 对整体性的要求; 一一一 整体优于部分; 一一一 内在性原则,即结构具有封闭性,对结 构的解释与历史的东西无关; 一一一 用共时态反对历时态,即 强调共时态 的优越性; 一一一 结构通过差异而达到可理解性; (六)结构分析的基本规则: 结 构分析应是现实的; 结构分析应是简化的; 结构分析应是解释性的 等等。
17、列维斯特劳斯把结构主义方法应用于神话学研究领域,所取得的成果也是举世瞩目的。他对神话的考证、确定某一神话的原始真实版本和内容没有兴趣,他所进 行的工作是想从神话研究中找到对所有人类心灵普遍有效的逻辑或思维原则,用他的话说,就是全人类的心灵都具有的原始逻辑或“ 野性思维”。从现代社会的文化中是难以找到这种普遍的野性思维的原则的,因为科学技术的发达和普遍的教育驯化,使现代人的心灵充满了各种特殊的逻辑或思维方式,那种原始的逻辑或野性思维已被掩盖或被埋起来了。神话是不受时间影响的“冷” 社会的文化,从中将能 寻求普遍的原始逻辑或野性思维。 列 维斯特劳斯在神话学研究中所提供的语言学方法, 实际开了法国
18、结构主义叙事学的先河,他的神话分析也就成为一切叙事作品结构分析的一个摹本,他所提出的著名论点每一个具体神话的各自单独的叙述,即神话言语,都是从神话的语言的基本结构中脱胎而出并从属于这个基本结构的也就成为结构主义叙事学的一个基本原则,并为结构主义研究方法的建立奠定了基础。Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts. It
19、began in linguistics with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. But many French intellectuals perceived it to have a wider application, and the model was soon modified and applied to other fields, such as anthropology, psychoanalysis and literary theory. This ushered in the dawn of structuralism as not
20、 just a method, but also an intellectual movement that came to take existentialisms pedestal in 1960s France.1Structuralism enjoyed much popularity, and its general stance of antihumanism was in sheer opposition to the Sartrean existentialism that preceded it. But in the 1970s, it came under interna
21、l fire from critics who accused it of being too rigid and ahistorical. However, many of structuralisms theorists, from Michel Foucault to Jacques Lacan, continue to assert an influence on continental philosophy, and many of the fundamental assumptions of its critics, that is, of adherents of poststr
22、ucturalism, are but a continuation of structuralism.1Structuralism isnt only applied within literary theory. There are also structuralist theories that exist within mathematics, philosophy of science, anthropology and in sociology. According to Alison Assiter, there are four common ideas regarding s
23、tructuralism that form an intellectual trend. Firstly, the structure is what determines the position of each element of a whole. Secondly, structuralists believe that every system has a structure. Thirdly, structuralists are interested in structural laws that deal with coexistence rather than change
24、s. And finally structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning.HistoryStructuralism appeared in academia in the second half of the 20th century, and grew to become one of the most popular approaches in academic fields concerned with the analysis of language,
25、culture, and society. The work of Ferdinand de Saussure concerning linguistics is generally considered to be a starting point of structuralism. The term “structuralism“ itself appeared in the works of French anthropologist Claude Lvi-Strauss, and gave rise, in France, to the “structuralist movement,
26、“ which spurred the work of such thinkers as Michel Foucault, Louis Althusser, the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, as well as the structural Marxism of Nicos Poulantzas. Almost all members of this so-called movement denied that they were part of it. Structuralism is closely related to semiotics. Post-s
27、tructuralism attempted to distinguish itself from the simple use of the structural method. Deconstruction was an attempt to break with structuralistic thought. Some intellectuals like Julia Kristeva, for example, took structuralism (and Russian formalism) for a starting point to later become promine
28、nt post-structuralists. Structuralism has had varying degrees of influence in the social sciences: a great deal in the field of sociology.edit Structuralism in linguisticsFerdinand de Saussure was the originator of the 20th century structuralism, and evidence of this can be found in Course in Genera
29、l Linguistics, written by Saussures colleagues after his death and based on student notes, where he focused not on the use of language (parole, or speech), but rather on the underlying system of language (langue) and called his theory semiology. However, the discovery of the underlying system had to
30、 be done via examination of the parole (speech). As such, Structural Linguistics are actually an early form of corpus linguistics (quantification). This approach focused on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present, that is, synchronically rather than diachronically
31、. Finally, he argued that linguistic signs were composed of two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word, either in mental projection - as when we silently recite lines from a poem to ourselves - or in actual, physical realization as part of a speech act) and a signified (the concept or meani
32、ng of the word). This was quite different from previous approaches which focused on the relationship between words and things in the world that they designate.Key notions in Structural Linguistics are the notions of paradigm, syntagm and value, though these notions were not yet fully developed in De
33、 Saussures thought. A structural paradigm is actually a class of linguistic units (lexemes, morphemes or even constructions) which are possible in a certain position in a given linguistic environment (like a given sentence), which is the syntagm. The different functional role of each of these member
34、s of the paradigm is called value (valeur in French). Structuralist criticism relates the literary text to a larger overarching structure which may be a particular genre, a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure or a notion of the narrative being a system of re
35、current patterns or motifs. 3Saussures Course influenced many linguists between World War I and WWII. In America, for instance, Leonard Bloomfield developed his own version of structural linguistics, as did Louis Hjelmslev in Denmark and Alf Sommerfelt in Norway. In France Antoine Meillet and mile B
36、enveniste would continue Saussures program. Most importantly, however, members of the Prague School of linguistics such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy conducted research that would be greatly influential.The clearest and most important example of Prague School structuralism lies in phonemi
37、cs. Rather than simply compile a list of which sounds occur in a language, the Prague School sought to examine how they were related. They determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analyzed in terms of a series of contrasts. Thus in English the sounds /p/ and /b/ represent disti
38、nct phonemes because there are cases (minimal pairs) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. pat and bat). Analyzing sounds in terms of contrastive features also opens up comparative scope - it makes clear, for instance, that the difficulty Japanese
39、 speakers have differentiating /r/ and /l/ in English is because these sounds are not contrastive in Japanese. While this approach is now standard in linguistics, it was revolutionary at the time. Phonology would become the paradigmatic basis for structuralism in a number of different forms.edit Str
40、ucturalism in anthropology and sociologyMain articles: structural anthropology and structural functionalismAccording to structural theory in anthropology and social anthropology, meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture through various practices, phenomena and activities which serve as sy
41、stems of signification. A structuralist studies activities as diverse as food preparation and serving rituals, religious rites, games, literary and non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment to discover the deep structures by which meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture. For e
42、xample, an early and prominent practitioner of structuralism, anthropologist and ethnographer Claude Lvi-Strauss in the 1950s, analyzed cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (the Alliance theory and the incest taboo), and food preparation (see also structural anthropology). In addition to
43、these studies, he produced more linguistically-focused writings where he applied Saussures distinction between langue and parole in his search for the fundamental mental structures of the human mind, arguing that the structures that form the “deep grammar“ of society originate in the mind and operat
44、e in us unconsciously. Levi-Strauss was inspired by information theorycitation needed and mathematicscitation needed.Another concept was borrowed from the Prague school of linguistics, where Roman Jakobson and others analysed sounds based on the presence or absence of certain features (such as voice
45、less vs. voiced). Levi-Strauss included this in his conceptualization of the universal structures of the mind, which he held to operate based on pairs of binary oppositions such as hot-cold, male-female, culture-nature, cooked-raw, or marriageable vs. tabooed women. A third influence came from Marce
46、l Mauss, who had written on gift exchange systems. Based on Mauss, for instance, Lvi-Strauss argued that kinship systems are based on the exchange of women between groups (a position known as alliance theory) as opposed to the descent based theory described by Edward Evans-Pritchard and Meyer Fortes
47、.While replacing Marcel Mauss at his Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes chair, Lvi-Strauss writing became widely popular in the 1960s and 1970s and gave rise to the term “structuralism“ itself. In Britain authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach were highly influenced by structuralism. Authors
48、such as Maurice Godelier and Emmanuel Terray combined Marxism with structural anthropology in France. In the United States, authors such as Marshall Sahlins and James Boon built on structuralism to provide their own analysis of human society. Structural anthropology fell out of favour in the early 1
49、980s for a number of reasons. DAndrade (1995) suggests that structuralism in anthropology was eventually abandoned because it made unverifiable assumptions about the universal structures of the human mind. Authors such as Eric Wolf argued that political economy and colonialism should be more at the forefront of anthropology. More generally, criticisms of structuralism by Pierre Bourdieu led to a concern with how cultural and social structures were changed by human agency and