1、Chapter Six Language and Cognition,2,1. What is Cognition?,Mental processes, information processing Mental process, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.,认知cognition ，指通过心理活动（如形成概念、知觉、判断或想象）获取知识。习惯上将认知与情感、意志相对应。,3,The formal approach: 形式法. The psychological approach: 心理学方法. The c
2、onceptual approach: 认知法,4,2. Psycholinguistics,Psychological aspects of language. Psychological states and mental activity with the use of language. Language acquisition, language production & comprehension.,5,Language acquisition (L1 / L2) Language comprehension Language production Language disorde
3、rs Language and Thought Neurocognition,Six subjects of research,6,2.1 Language Acquisition,7,Three-word-utterance stage Give doggie paper. Put truck window. Tractor go floor.,8,2.2 Language comprehension,Mental lexicon: information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding langua
4、ge,9,For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances.,10,Lexical
5、 ambiguity,All the meanings related to the word are accessed. Only one meaning is accessed initially.,11,Are you engaged ? My friend drove me to the bank. They passed the port at midnight. Please give me a camel. 上课 做手术,12,The clerk (entering): Are you engaged? Augustus: What business is that of you
6、rs? However, if you will take the trouble to read the society papers for this week, you will see that I am engaged to the Honourable Lucy Popham, youngest daughter of. . . The clerk: That isnt what I mean. Can you see a female? Augustus: Of course, I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you supp
7、ose I am blind? (George Bernard Shaw: Augustus Does His Bit),13,Lexical factors in comprehension,The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon.,14,Syntactic ambiguity,Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases.
8、Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.,15,John painted the car in the garage.,16,May likes the vase on the cupboard which she bought yesterday. The students will discuss their plan to hold a dancing party in the classroom. I know Simon better than you. Tell me if you have time.,17,
9、My brother wasnt reading all the time. The chairman appointed Mr. Brown an assistant. The scholar wrote long thesis and books. Flying planes can be dangerous.,18,John went into a restaurant. He asked the waitress for coq au vin. He ate it, paid the bill and left. (perfectly understandable)John went
10、into a restaurant. He saw a waitress. He got up and went home. (does not seem to make sense),19,一天，我在看中央三台的中国音乐电视。我正看得津津有味的时候，老妈回来了说：“这是谁啊？”当时正是龙宽九段在唱歌。我就说：“龙宽九段。”这时，老妈一本正经的问：“九段？下围棋的啊？她还能唱歌啊？”,20,Pragmatic ambiguity,There is a fly in my soup. Today is Sunday. “Do you enjoy sitting beside me?” she a
11、sked coldly. “Oh, no, ”I said. “Well, you are not wanted here. ”(W. E. B. DuBois, “On Being Crazy”),21,2.3 Language production,Access to words Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process Morpho-phonological encoding: target words,22,Written language production Similar to
12、 spoken language. Orthographic form instead of phonological form. However, phonology plays an important role in this process. Writers have more time available for conceptual preparation and planning.,23,3. Cognitive Linguistics,Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific s
13、tudy of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.,24,Three main approaches,The Experiential View 经验观 The Prominence View 凸显观 The Attentional View 注意观,25,Ex
14、periential view,Car: a box-like shape, wheels, doors, windowscomfort, speed, mobility, independence, social status,26,Prominence view,The selection and arrangement of the information that is expressed. The car crashed into the tree. The tree is hit by the car.,27,Attentional view,What we actually ex
15、press reflects which parts of an event attract our attention. The car crashed into the tree. How the car started to swerve; How it skidded across the road; How it rumbled onto the verge.,28,3.1 Construal 识解,Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways,29,30,Fig
16、ure-ground reversal,31,The tree is in front of the man. The man is behind the tree.,32,3.2 Categorization,The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences“范畴”一词在认知语言学中是个用途很广而且含义模糊的术语。一种事物及其类似成员可以构成一个范畴，一类事物及其包含的事物可以构成一个范畴。,33,纳米 高分子 碳纤维 蓝色农业
17、 贫铀弹 燃料电池 人文发展指数,34,Basic level Superordinate level Animal Horse Dog Cat Chihuahua German dachshund shepherd Subordinate level Vertical organization,35,3.3 Image Schema,Johnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Pres
18、s.,36,An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. They are highly schematic representations of perceptually grounded experience. They emerge from our embodied interactions with the world.,37,Center-periphery
19、 schema,Involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core. Examples (English): The structure of an apple An individuals perceptual sphere An individuals social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality,38,Containment
20、 schema,Involves a physical or metaphorical boundary enclosed area or volume, or excluded area or volume.,39,Bodily experience: human bodies as containers. Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior Basic logic: For all A, X, either IN (X,A) or not. For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) and CONTA
21、INER (B) and IN (A, B) and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B). The ship is coming into view. Shes deep in thought. We stood in silence.,40,Cycle schema,Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following: A starting point A progression through successive events without backtrac
22、king A return to the initial state The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.,41,Examples (English) Days Weeks Years Sleeping and waking Breathing Circulation Emotional buildup and release,42,End-of-path schema,An image
23、 schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sams home, which is at the end of the path: Sam lives over the hill.,43,Force schema,Involves physical or m
24、etaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: A source and target of the force A direction and intensity of the force A path of motion of the source and/or target A sequence of causation,44,Examples (English): Physical: Wind, Gravity Structural elements: force, path, entity, et
25、c. Interaction, directionality, causality Compulsion Blockage Counterforce Diversion Removal of restraint,45,Link schema,Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them. Entity A Entity B,46,Examples (English): A child holding her mothers hand Some
26、one plugging a lamp into the wall A causal “connection” Kinship “ties”,47,Part-whole schema,Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. Examples (English): Physical: The body and its parts Metaphorical: The family; The caste structure of India,48
27、,Path schema,Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.,49,Examples (English): Physical: Paths; Trajectories Metaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentence
28、s: Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality. You have reached the midpoint of your flight training. Shes just starting out to make her fortune. Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.,50,Scale schema,Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amoun
29、t, and consists of any of the following: A closed- or open-ended progression of amount A position in the progression of amount One or more norms of amount A calibration of amount,51,Examples: Physical amounts Properties in the number system Economic entities such as supply and demand,52,Verticality
30、schema,Involves “up” and “down” relations. Examples: Standing upright Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub,A,B,53,3.4 Metaphor,George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.,54,Conceptual Metaphor Theory,Metaphors are actually cog
31、nitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.,55,Target domain - what is actually being talked about. Source domain - the domain used as a basis
32、for understanding target Ontological correspondence Epistemic correspondenceTarget domain Source domain,RATIONAL ARGUMENT,WAR,56,The epistemic correspondence,57,Example: LIFE IS A JOURNEY,Ontological correspondence:,58,Epistemic correspondence,59,Structural Metaphor,Provides rich highly structured,
33、clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. The nature of the mapping: The mapping involves two types of correspondence between target and source domain, which are both grounded in our experiences in the world.,60,Example: ARGUMENT IS WAR: Your claims are indefensible. He attacked e
34、very weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target. I demolished his argument. Ive never won an argument with him. You disagree? OK, shoot! If you use that strategy, hell wipe you out. He shot down all of my arguments.,61,Orientational Metaphor,Gives a concept a spatial orientation
35、Characterized by a co-occurrence in our experience Grounded in an experiential basis, which link together the two parts of the metaphor The link verb “is”, part of the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences.,62,For example, MORE IS UP This metaphor is grounded
36、 in the co-occurrence of two different kinds of experiences: adding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise.,63,Examples: HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN That boosted my spirits Im feeling down Im depressed CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Wake up He fell asleep Hes under hy
37、pnosis,64,3.5 Metonymy,It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.,65,It is modeled as idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff (1987), con
38、ceptual mappings by Radden & Kovecses (1999), domain highlighting by Croft (2002), combinations of mappings and highlighting by Ruiz de Mendoza (2000), scenarios by Panther & Thornburg (1999) and more generally as reference-point activation by Langacker (1999) and Barcelona (2000).,66,On the basis o
39、f the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories: the world of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events” They roughly correspond to the three entities that comprise the well-known semantic triangle. The interrelations between entities of the same or from different
40、 ontological realms lead to various ICMs and possibilities for metonymy. Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological realms: Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and Concept ICMs.,67,Two general conceptual configurations: whole ICM and its part(s) parts of an ICM. (1) Whole ICM and its part(s) (i) Thing-and-Part I
41、CM, which may lead to two metonymic variants: WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE THING: America for “United States” PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE THING: England for “Great Britain”,68,(ii) Scale ICM. Scales are a special class of things and the scalar units are parts of them. Typically, a scale as a whole
42、 is used for its upper end and the upper end of a scale is used to stand for the scale as a whole: WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF THE SCALE: Henry is speeding again for “Henry is going too fast.” UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR WHOLE SCALE: How old are you? for “what is your age?”,69,(iii) Constitution ICM.
43、It involves matter, material or substances which are seen as constituting a thing. OBJECT FOR MATERIAL CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT: I smell skunk. MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT: wood for “forest”,70,(iv) Event ICM. Events may be metaphorically viewed as things which may have parts. WHOL
44、E EVENT FOR SUBEVENT: Bill smoked marijuana. SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT: Mary speaks Spanish.,71,(v) Category-and-Member ICM. A category and its members stand in a kind of relation. CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF THE CATEGORY: the pill for “birth control pill” MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY: aspirin
45、for “any pain-relieving tablet”,72,(vi) Cateory-and-Property ICM. Properties may either be seen metaphorically as possessed objects (PROPERTIES ARE POSSESSIONS) or metonymically as parts of an object. CATEGORY FOR DEFINING PROPERTY: jerk for “stupidity” DEFNING PROPERTY FOR CATEGORY: blacks for “bla
46、ck people”,73,(vii) Reduction ICM. A final type of a PART FOR WHOLE metonymy is found in the reduction of the form of a sign. PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE FORM: crude for “crude oil”,74,(2) Parts of an ICM (i) Action ICM. It involves a variety of participants which may be related to the predicate ex
47、pressing the action or to each other. AGENT FOR ACTION: to author a new book; to butcher the cow ACTION FOR AGENT: writer, driver,75,INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: to ski, to hammer ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil sharpener; screwdriver OBJECT FOR ACTION: to blanket the bed; to dust the room ACTION FOR OBJECT
48、: the best bites; the flight is waiting to depart,76,RESULT FOR ACTION: to landscape the garden ACTION FOR RESULT: the production; the productMANNER FOR ACTION: to tiptoe into the roomMEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the tissue off the table.,77,TIME FOR ACTION: to summer in ParisDESTINATION FOR MOTION:
49、 to porch the newspaperINSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: the pen for “writer”,78,(ii) Perception ICM. Perception plays such an outstand role in our cognitive world that it merits an ICM of its own. Since perceptions may also be intentional, the Perception ICM may cross-classify with the Action ICM. THING PERCEI
50、VED FOR PERCEPTION: There goes my knee for “There goes the pain in my knee” PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED: sight for “thing seen”,79,(iii) Causation ICM. Cause and effect are so closely interdependent that one of them tends to imply the other. Moreover, they probably account for the fact that peopl
51、e often confuse causes and effects. In principle, the causation ICM may give rise to reversible metonymies: CAUSE FOR EFFECT: healthy complexion for “the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion” EFFECT FRO CAUSE: slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road”,
