1、一绪论 1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication
2、 is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”-boyish,teach-teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called
3、 syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The
4、study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of
5、language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二 音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be sim
6、ply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some dont. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;
7、it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution.
8、 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great f
9、orce than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length
10、 are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English三 形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the intern
11、al structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation. 3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation. 4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of lang
12、uage. 5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes. 6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other mor
13、phemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. 8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. 9 p
14、refix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word. 10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as
15、 the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words. 12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. 四 句法学 1 linguistic competence:
16、 Comsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement
17、question or command. 3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before move
18、ment take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure. 5 Move : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accoun
19、ting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move 五 语义学 1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the featur
20、es of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. 3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sa
21、meness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy. 5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word. 6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness
22、of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. 7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a
23、 more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. 10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical
24、well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions. 12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predicat
25、ion. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence六 语用学 1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally s
26、peaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. 3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 4 locutionary act: A locutionary act
27、is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology. 5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speakers intention; It is the act performed in saying something. 6 perlocutionary act: A illocutiona
28、ry act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.七 历史语言学 1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
29、 2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope. 3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis. 4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound
30、 movement is known as metathesis. 5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots. 7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word
31、 by combining parts of other words. 8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. 9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its histori
32、cally earlier denotation 10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. 11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acqui
33、re a new, sometimes related, meaning. 12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language. 13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes八 社会语言学 1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context. 2 speech community: A speech community
34、 is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. 3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. 4 language planning: One
35、way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, ac
36、ross regional boundaries. 5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media. 7 nonstandard l
37、anguage: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages. 8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds. 9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of langu
38、age that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. 10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication. 11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very di
39、fferent varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations. 12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group
40、 of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. 13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences. 14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to part
41、icular social classes. 15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situat
42、ional dialects. 16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness. 17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or e
43、xpression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use. 18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct
44、wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. 九 心理语言学 1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, pro
45、duce and comprehend. 2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. 3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.
46、4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brains neurological specialization for language. 5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisp
47、here comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks 6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage. 7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a peri
48、od in ones life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction. 8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking ar
49、e dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism. 9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion 10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.十 语言习得 1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In genera
