1、Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics,女人，妖的叫美女，刁的叫才女，木的叫淑女，蔫的叫温柔，凶的叫直爽，傻的叫阳光，狠的叫冷艳，土的叫端庄，洋的叫气质，怪的叫个性，匪的叫干练，嫩的叫青春靓丽，老的叫丰韵犹存，牛的叫傲雪凌风，弱的叫小鸟依人做女人真好啊。,1，留了青山在，柴不让烧了。2，已到山前，就是没有路。3，买卖没成交，仁义也跑了。4，屡经风雨，却从未见彩虹。 5，千里送鹅毛，汽油费太高。6，一个好汉三个帮，结果成了四-人-帮。7，办事本来有路子的，但走的人多了，堵死了。,1.1 Why study language?,问：你幸福吗？,答：我姓曾。,如：“
2、你经历太单纯，而我们需要的是社会经验丰富的人”，“你性格过于内向，这恐怕与我们的职业不合适”，“我们需要名牌院校的毕业生，你并非毕业于名牌院校”，“你的专业怎么与所申请的职位不对口？”面对这种咄咄逼人的发问，作为应聘者，首先要做到的就是无论如何不要被“激怒”，如果你被“激怒”了，那么你就已经输掉了。那么，面对这样的发问，如何接招儿呢？,如果对方说：“你经历太单纯，而我们需要的是社会经验丰富的人。”,你可以微笑着回答：“我确信如我有缘加盟贵公司，我将会很快成为社会经验丰富的人，我希望自己有这样一段经历。”,如果对方说：“你性格过于内向，这恐怕与我们的职业不合适。”,你可以微笑着回答：“据说内向的
3、人往往具有专心致志、锲而不舍的品质，另外我善于倾听，因为我感到应把发言机会多多地留给别人。”,如果对方说：“我们需要名牌院校的毕业生，你并非毕业于名牌院校。”,你可以幽默地说：“听说比尔。盖茨也未毕业于哈佛大学。”,如果对方说：“你的专业怎么与所申请的职位不对口？”,你可以巧妙地回答：“据说，21世纪最抢手的就是复合型人才，而外行的灵感也许会超过内行，因为他们没有思维定势，没有条条框框。”,1.2 What is Language?,Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emo
4、tions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939),语言是人们通过随意创造的符号来交流思想、感情和愿望的一种方法，是人类所特有、但不是与生俱来的, 是后天获得的。,语言不是本能的行为而是社会的习俗同时认为“语言只是声音符号的习惯系统”。后来又提到语言是一种“表达意义的工具”。所以说萨丕尔的语言定义全面地概括了前人所说的语言是一种交际工具和语言是一个符号系统这两种观点，并把它们有机地结合起来。,A language is a system for meanings. Halliday（韩礼
5、德1925 -）,功能语言学派认为语言是一个系统，应对其结构进行共时的研究，把语言的结构与功能结合起来研究。他们认为语言的基本功能是作交际工具，语言是一个由多种表达手段构成的、为特定目的服务的功能系统。因此要用功能的观点去研究语言。,A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）,从现在开始，我认为语言是一组（有限或无限）的句子，每个句子在长度上有限，并
6、由一套有限的成分组成。,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是一个具有任意性，用于人类交流的语音符号系统。,首先，语言是一个系统。即语言的要素是根据规则组合在一起的。Eg. “iblk”, “Been he wounded has”,其次，语言符号和符号所代表的的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。,再次，语言是有声的，因为所有语言的首要媒介都是声音。Eg. 文字系统VS.声音系统,Websters New World Dictionary offe
7、rs several most frequently used senses of the word “language”, namely, 1 (a) human speech; (b) the ability to communicate by this means; (c) a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; (d)
8、 the written representation of such a system.,1.3 Design Features of Language,1. 狼是一种狡诈的动物，它使用多种脸面表情、尾部动作、嗥叫声表示不同程度的威吓、焦急、沮丧，屈从。,2. 泰国北部的长臂猿至少有九种不同的喊叫。有一种高昂的呼号是警告同类注意有敌来犯，听到的同类也往往应声重复。有一种叫喊似乎是招呼大家在林中觅食时不要分散得太开。,3.工蜂发现蜜源，回巢向同伴做舞蹈动作。舞蹈的特征视所要传递的信息而异；有一种特征指明蜜源在蜂巢的什么方向，另一种特征指明距离多远，舞蹈的遍数多、活跃程度高，则表示花蜜的质量高。
9、别的工蜂从舞蹈得到这些信息，就成群地飞过去采蜜。,Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960s of a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all includ
10、e, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.,The features that define our human languages can be called Design Features.,Vocal-Auditory Channel Broadcast transmission and directional reception Rapid Fading (transitoriness) Interchangeability Total Feedb
11、ack Specialization Semanticity Arbitrariness Discreteness Displacement Productivity Traditional Transmission Duality of patterning,1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性,The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning.
12、,语言是符号系统：语言符号连接的不是事物和名称，而是概念和音响形象。,能指和所指的联系是任意的，或者，我们所说的符号是能指和所指相联结所产生的整体。语言符号是任意的。,(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning,符号的形成包含好多的心智努力。,人们接触的都是一个个、一件件的事物，要能从中归出类来，必须动脑筋，舍去个体的特性（比如个体苹果的形状、大小、色泽、口感），抽出整类的共性（苹果区别于其他水果的特性），概括成类的意义（苹果的意义），然后把这个意义（即概念）跟一组音相结合，形成一个符号（
13、“苹果”）。所以语言的符号指一般而不是个别，积累着社会的人事成果。,荀子在两千多年前就精辟地论述过语言符号的任意性问题：,名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。名无固善，径易而不拂，谓之善名。,荀子 正名,Arbitrary vs. convention,Having no natural explanation.,As learners of English we are often told that “this is an idiom” meaning it is conventional to say things this wa
14、y and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical.,Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.,1.3.2 Duality 二重性,By duality is meant the property of having two lev
15、els of structures, such that units of the primary level ( ) are composed of elements of the secondary level ( ) and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.,words,sounds,Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds which do not convey meaning in themselves.
16、The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words. We call sounds here secondary units as opposed to such primary units as words, since the secondary units are meaningless and the primary units have distinct and identifiable.,syllables,the carr
17、iers of morphemes,words,sentences/utterances,duality,duality,duality,The property of being composed of discrete units at two levels. Thus, at one level, the sentence You go to sleep is composed of the words you, go, to and sleep, and, at another level, it or the successive words are composed of the
18、phonological units j, u:, , etc.,texts/discourse,meaningless sounds,duality,duality,1.3.3 Creativity 创造性,Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.,By creativity we mean that language is resourceful because of its duality.,I kn
19、ow that you know that I know. Etc.,1.3.4 Displacement 移位性,By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.,1.3.5 Cultural transmission 文化传承性,尽管人的语言能力具有一种遗传的基础，即习得语言的能力是我们与生俱来的，但是任何语言系统的细节都得靠传授和学习，而不是靠遗传。一个说
20、英语的人和一个说汉语的人都能使用某种语言，但是他们不能相互理解。这就表明语言是通过文化来传承的。它是通过教与学来传递，而不是本能地代代相传。与之相反的是，动物的叫声系统是通过遗传来传承的，即动物天生就具有它们物种特有的叫声的能力。,1.4 Origin of Language,“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. ”,“And the Lord said, Behold, the People is one, and they have all one language;
21、 and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. ”,圣经解释：上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果,The “bow-bow” theory 摹声说: In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animals calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.,The “pooh-po
22、oh” theory 感叹说: In the hard lift of primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.,The “yo-he-ho” theory 哼唷声说: As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.,Systemic Functional Grammar
23、,1.5 Functions of Language,Halliday explains this preoccupation in the following way: “It seemed to me that explanations of linguistic phenomena needed to be sought in relationships among systems rather than among structures” .,Hallidays grammar is not just systemic, but systemic functional. He argu
24、es that the explanation of how language works “needed to be grounded in a functional analysis, since language had evolved in the process of carrying out certain critical functions as human beings interacted with their . eco-social environment“.,Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language
25、, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.,The ideational component is that part of the linguistic system which is concerned with the expression of “content”, with the function that language has “of being about something.”,experiential:,logical:,more directly concerned
26、with the representation of experience,the abstract logical relations which derive only indirectly from experience,The interpersonal component is concerned with the social, expressive and conative（意动的） functions of language, with expressing the speakers “angle”: his attitudes and judgments, his encod
27、ing of the role relationships in situation, and his motive in saying anything at all.,概念功能指人对外部世界的认知，或指在语言中反映出来的外部世界客观上可验证的事态。,The textual component is for being operationally relevant, cohering within itself and with the context of situation.,篇章被视为一种语言单位，受衔接、连贯之类原则支配，这些特点可以从形式上定义起到鉴别作用的篇章性。,1.5.1 I
28、nformative Function (信息功能),It means that language is the instrument of thought and language serves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as “This is a book.” are typical illu
29、stration of this function.,1.5.2 Interpersonal function (人际功能),Language serves to establish, develop and maintain social relations between people. For example: the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) ind
30、icate the various grades of interpersonal relations.,Language serves to establish and maintain social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself for example the roles of questioner and respondent, which we take on by asking or answering a question. Through this function,
31、 social groups are delimited, and the individual is identified and reinforced.,Language can be used to do things, to perform action. It is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a lau
32、nching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on same magical or religious occasions.,1.5.3 Performative (行事功能),e.g. “I surrender.” “Ill do it to
33、night.” “I declare the meeting open.” “ I sentence you to three years in prison.”,1.5.4 Emotive function (感情功能),The use of language to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. e.g. “Ouch!”, “Im terribly sorry about ” (alternatively called expressive function),It is the most powerful uses of
34、 language because it is so crucial to in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.,It was defined by the anthropologist B. Malinowski in the 1920s as a type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words. It means the social interacti
35、on of language. The use of language to establish or maintain a comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual content. E.g. greetings, farewells, and talking about the weather.,1.5.5 Phatic communion (寒暄交谈),马林诺夫斯基(18841942)Malinowski，Bronislaw Kaspar英国社会人类学家。功能学派创始人之一。生于波兰，卒
36、于美国。1908年以全奥地利最优等成绩获得物理学和数学博士学位。 马林诺夫斯基最大的贡献在於他提出了新的民族志写作方法。从马林诺夫斯基起，几乎所有的人类学家都必需到自己研究的文化部落住上一年半载，并实地参与聚落的生活，使用当地的语言甚至和土著建立友谊。而这些，都为了完成一份马林诺夫斯基式的民族志纪录。,我国德高望重的社会学家、人类学家、民族学家、社会活动家费孝通先生1936年底赴英国伦敦经济学院学习社会人类学，师从英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基。,1929年：The sexual life of savages in North-western Melanesia : an ethnographic
37、 account of courtship, marria 1935年：珊瑚园及其魔力Coral gardens and their magic. 1944年：Freedom and civilization 1944年：文化论（A Scientific Theory of Culture） 1945年：The Dynamics of Culture Change 1948年：巫术、科学与宗教（Magic, Science, and Religion） 1967年：A Diary In the Strict Sense of the Term,1913年：澳大利亚土著家庭（The Family
38、 among the Australia Aborgines） 1915年：The Trobriand Islands 1922年：西太平洋的航海者（Argonauts of the Western Pacific） 1926年：原始社会的犯罪与习俗（Crime and custom in savage society） 1927年：两性社会学:母系社会与父系社会底比较（Sex and reperssion in savage society ）,1.5.6 Recreational function (娱乐功能),The use of language for the sheer joy o
39、f using it. E.g. singing, poetry writing.,A very famous movie Liu San Jie features a scene of “dui ge” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.,1.5.7 Metalingual function（元语言功能）,The use of language to make statements about language itself. The language about which they are mad
40、e is called the object language. E.g. to say that book is pronounced buk is to make a metalinguistic statement about that word.,A metalanguage is a language of a higher order than its object language (对象语言).,1.5.8 Linear order,能指属听觉性质，只在时间上展开，而且具有借自时间的特征 ：,（a）它体现一个长度；,（b）这长度只能在一个时间向度上测定：它是一条线。,视觉的能指
41、（比如航海信）可以在几个向度上同时并发，而听觉的能指却只有时间上的一条线；它的要素相继出现，构成一个链条。我们只要用文字把它们表示出来，用书写符号的空间线条代替时间上的前后相继，这个特征就马上可以看到。,(a) The lion chased the unicorn all round the town.,(b) All round the town the lion chased the unicorn.,The change in linear order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause:,(a) answe
42、rs the concern about “what did the lion do”; while (b) is concerned with “where or in what scope did the lion chase the unicorn”.,This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about think, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, t
43、o think, to be human.,1.6 What is Linguistics?,The scientific study of language. It not only focus on a particular language, but is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.,1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics,1.7.1
44、Phonetics （语音学 Chapter 2）,PHONETICS studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.,1.7.2 Phonology （音系学 Chapter 2 ）,PHONOLOGY studi
45、es the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequence of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Phonology identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound. Phonology reveals what the possible combinati
46、ons of sounds in a language are and explains why certain words take the form they do.,1.7.3 Morphology （形态学 Chapter 3）,MORPHOLOGY is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morpheme and word-formation processes.,1.7.5 Semantics （语义学 Chapter 5 ）,SEMA
47、NTICS examines how meaning is encoded (编码) in a language.,decode: （解码）,Used sometimes of the process of understanding a sentence.,Used of a supposed mental process by which pre-existing thoughts are encoded as sentences.,1.7.4 Syntax （句法学 Chapter 4）,SYNTAX is about principles of forming and understa
48、nding correct English sentences. The form or structural of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax.,1.8 Macrolinguistics (宏观语言学),1.7.6 Pragmatics （语用学 Chapter8）,PRAGMATICS is the study of meaning in context. Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with
49、the way language is internally structured.,Psycholinguistics （心里语言学） Sociolinguistics （社会语言学） Anthropological Linguistics （人类语言学） Computational Linguistics （计算机语言学）,1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics,1.9.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写vs.规定),Prescriptive statements aim to “prescribe” what i
50、s judged to be correct rather than to “describe” actual usage.,Its me. Who did you speak to? I havent done nothing.,A linguistic study is descriptive if it aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use; it is prescriptive if it aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behaviour in using language , i.e. To tell people what they should say and waht they should not say.,
