1、z z u /c l j,1,英语语言学概论,任课教师：陈令君 职称：讲师/博士授课对象：英语专业四年级本科生所在单位：郑州大学外语学院,Chapter 10 Applied linguistics,Language teaching and learning,z z u /c l j,3,Necessities for this chapter,one part of linguisticsbeneficial implications for language teachers,z z u /c l j,4,Major contents,linguistics and language l
2、earning- grammar, input, output, contrastive analysis, error analysis, individual differences.linguistics and language teaching- linguistic views of teaching; teaching methods; syllabus design; corpus linguistics and language teaching.linguistics and language testing- types of tests; principles of l
3、anguage testing,z z u /c l j,5,Applied linguistics: a scholarly discipline dealing with the application of insights from both linguistics and other fields (such as anthropology, philosophy, psychology, sociology, or education) to an understanding of how we learn, store, and use a second language or
4、our native language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for language learning/acquisition, teaching and testing.,z z u /c l j,6,Three sense
5、s of applied linguistics,the study of language teaching and learningthe application of language study in any area of practical concern The application of the findings of theoretical linguistics,z z u /c l j,7,1. Linguistics and language learning/acquisition,Many language learning theories are propos
6、ed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.,z z u /c l j,8,Learning/acquisition,acquisition is the gradual development of ability in a L by using
7、 it naturally in communicative situations. learning is the conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a L, particularly through formal instruction. SLA has been discussed in psycholinguistics. SLA can be defined as the way in which people learn a L other than their
8、mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom.,z z u /c l j,9,As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmat
9、ic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.,z z u /c l j,10,Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the ma
10、jority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself.,z z u /c l j,11,1.1 Theories about L learning,behaviorism: Bloomfield, Skinner The innateness hypothesis: ChomskyInterlanguage theory: Selinker(1972)The input hypothesis: K
11、rashen(1970)The output hypothesis: Swain (1985),z z u /c l j,12,Behaviorism,SrsRS stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.learning is viewed as the development of stimulus-respon
12、se associations through habit formation, habit being developed by practice and reinforcement.,z z u /c l j,13,The innateness hypothesis: UG,Children are born with an innate knowledge of at least some of the universal structural principles of human language. This knowledge is embodied in a mechanism
13、called L acquisition device (LAD),z z u /c l j,14,Interlanguage theory,the learners language can be regarded as a distinct L variety or system with its own particular characteristics and rules. it is a third language, with its own grammar, its own lexicon and so on. learners go through a process of
14、making and testing hypotheses about the target l, with or without the assistance of formal instruction.truly successful students arrive at a higher level of competence in the target l, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the interlanguage continuum.,z z u /c l j,15,The i
15、nput theory,language is acquired, not learned. speech should be allowed to emerge on its own and the ability to produce L need not be taught directly.the input should not deliberately contain grammatically programmed structures.,z z u /c l j,16,The output hypothesis (Swain),comprehensible input may
16、lead to understanding, but full grammatical competence requires the learner to produce comprehensible outputs through their functions as follows:- the noticing/triggering function- the hypothesis testing function- the metalinguistic (reflective)function,z z u /c l j,17,1.2 Theories and learning,Gram
17、mar and L learning Input and L learningOutput: interlanguage Contrastive analysis Error analysis individual differencesInstruction and acquisition,z z u /c l j,18,1.2.1 Grammar and language learning,As a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” (discrete-point grammar instruction) and
18、 the “purely meaning-focused” approaches (immersion and naturalistic L acquisition), a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.,Do we teach grammar? How do we teach grammar?,z z u /c l j,19,Focus on Form,Although language le
19、arning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.,z z u /c l j,20,Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code featuresby the teacher and/or one or more studentstriggered b
20、y perceived problems with comprehension or production. Two variables concerning the amenability of focus on form: Universal Grammar; complexity of L structures.,z z u /c l j,21,Universal Grammar,According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; o
21、therwise, the amenability is low. The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play.,z z u /c l j,22,The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning resear
22、ch in the most practical sense. knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways apart from its relevance to focus on form. It can provide explanations for developmental sequences and L transfer.,z z u /c l j,23,Structural complexity,It can be assumed that less
23、 complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of langu
24、age structures.,z z u /c l j,24,Grammar-based teaching,various models of grammar formalist models of grammar, generative models of grammar and functional models of grammar actually reflect that we need to know more about grammar and grammar learning/teaching. Grammar-based teaching methods are typic
25、ally as follows:-Grammar-translation method-Audiolingual method-Situational language teaching,z z u /c l j,25,1.2.2 Input and language learning,Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the c
26、ase of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse .,z z u /c l j,26,Authentic input: those who believe in meaning-focused L instruction tend to insist on authentic input. The input should vary in style, mode, medium and purpose and should b
27、e rich in features which are characteristic of authentic discourse in the target L.Despite the advantages of authentic input, people believe that any input must be comprehensible if it is to have any effect on learning.,Different kinds of input:,z z u /c l j,27,i+1 input (Krashen),Challenging yet Co
28、mprehensible input (Krashen): i+1: the L that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close t
29、o their current stage that they are not challenged at all.,z z u /c l j,28,Kinds of optimal input,Premodified input: material that is finely tuned in advance to the learners current level. Interactively modified input: material that is modified when the teacher and the learners interact.,z z u /c l
30、j,29,Problems in input studies,what are the exact linguistic differences between different types of input? How can we be sure the i+1 input is not i+0 or i+2?How should we modify input?,z z u /c l j,30,Input-based teaching,Direct method Functional approach Natural approach Total physical response Co
31、mmunicative approach Suggestopedia Silent way,z z u /c l j,31,1.2.3 Interlanguageoutput,A constructivist view of L argues that L is socially constructed. Learners learn L by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks (output). They construct L in social and cultural contexts. The typ
32、e of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learners native language.,z z u /c l j,32,z z u /c l j,33,it is
33、a L system between the target L and the learners native L. It is imperfect compared with the target L, but it is not mere translation from the learners native L either.it is not a bridging L between or a mixture of the target L and the native L. Rather, interlanguage is a dynamic language system, wh
34、ich is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.,z z u /c l j,34,investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.How is interlanguage different from t
35、he target L or the native L?In what way is lower level interlangauge different from higher level interlangauge?How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?,z z u /c l j,35,fossilization,fossilization: a process in SLA in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the w
36、ay a person speaks or write a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized.,z z u /c l j,36,1.2.4 Contrastive Analysis,A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does no
37、t need to be learned in a second language learning situation (Gass and Selinker,2001). Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.,z z u /c l j,37,Language transfer,The study of the roles that th
38、e native L plays is known as the research of L transfer, by which is meant the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation (Gass and Selinker, 2001), or “the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target L and any other L
39、that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. ” (Odlin, 2003),z z u /c l j,38,Contrastive analysis hypothesis: where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. L transfer: the study of the rol
40、es that the native L plays. The influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target L and any other L that has been previously acquired.,z z u /c l j,39,Main assumptions,Language is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits. L1 interferes with L2. Errors i
41、n L2 can be accounted for by differences between L1 and L2. Transfer occurs from L1 to L2, so similarities can be ignored. Therefore, Need for careful analysis of similarities and differences between L1 and L2. Teachers should focus on areas of negative transfer.,z z u /c l j,40,Drawbacks,Overemphas
42、is on linguistic contrasts but lack of psychological considerations. Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not occur.it fails to predict actual difficulties and some difficulties predicated do not always materialize.,z z u /c l j,41,1.2.5 Error Analysis,Claim: errors made by L2 le
43、arners were caused by factors other than L1 interference. S. Pit Corder: Errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated. errors are important in themselves.,z z u /c l j,42,1.2.5.1 Error and mistake,Error: learners lack of knowledge/ competence Mistake: due to lack of attention or othe
44、r factors, learners fail to perform their competence although they know the correct language form,z z u /c l j,43,1.2.5.2 the source of errors: Interlingual vs. intralingual,Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. The learner utilizes some L1 features (phono
45、logical, lexical, grammatical, or pragmatic) rather than that of the target L. Intralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization, which arises when the learner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does not apply),z z u /c l j,44,1.2.5.3 nature of errors: five typ
46、es,omissions: she sleeping.addition: he is works there.double markings (use of a tense marker twice in one sentence): we didnt went there.misformation (the wrong form of the morpheme or structure): he eated.misorderings: incorrect placement of a morpheme (group) in an utterance: what John is doing?,
47、z z u /c l j,45,1.2.5.4 Procedure of error analysis,Recognition: to identify the grammatical error and functional error. Description: by comparison with utterances of native L2 speakers and contrastive analysis in reference to his/her L1 meaning Explanation: to identify the psychological processes t
48、hat caused the error. Why did the learner commit the error how do people learn L?,z z u /c l j,46,1.2.5.5 Problems,It is inadequate to rely on errors to study how L2 is learned. We should study both errors and nonerrors to get the entire picture concerning the L users linguistic behavior. It is some
49、times difficult to determine what an error is: There are so many people live around here. Over-stresses production data but fails to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or structure.,z z u /c l j,47,1.2.6 Individual differences in SLA,AgeMotivation L aptitude cognitive stylepe
50、rsonal traitslearning strategies,z z u /c l j,48,1.2.6.1 Age,children learn L faster than adultscritical period hypothesis: there is a period during which L can be acquired more easily than at any other time. The critical period lasts until puberty, around 12 or 13 years, because lateralization of our brain has already occurred by this time.,
