1、第四节：论文的主要部分:引言（Introduction）,引言,前言、导论、导言、序言、绪论、概论.,整篇论文的引论部分总的要求:The purpose of an introduction is to bring the reader into the general area of your study and then state the specific area of study (move from the general to the specific). The introduction shows the scope of your investigation efforts
2、.主要内容：Background (背景): statement of general area or history of problem, including previous findings, reports or studies. What we dont know， What do we know about the subjects?. Who else has done what? How? What have we done previously? Only relevant information should be provided; dont write a revie
3、w,引言Introduction,Objective(目的): statement of purpose of current studyThe justification for the objective (意义): statement of importance or need. Rationale and Significance. Why you want to do it? Dont repeat abstract. Make an appeal to general readersGuidance to the reader(研究问题的具体范围): what should the
4、 reader watch for in the paper? what are the interesting high points? what strategy did we use? Statement of specific area of problem to be studied. Approaches how you are going to do it.Summary /conclusion( 结果)：hat should the reader expect as conclusion? In advanced version of the outline.,引言的基本要求,
5、1)准确、清楚且简洁地指出所探讨问题的本质和范围，对研究背景的阐述做到繁简适度。文字不可冗长，内容选择不必过于分散、琐碎，措词要精炼，要吸引读者读下去。不要与摘要雷同.篇幅大小，并无硬性的统一规定，长的可达700800字或1000字左右，短的可不到100字。(2) 在背景介绍和问题的提出中，应引用“最相关”的文献以指引读者。重要的参考文献应在引言中有所描述，不贬低已有成果、不夸大自己的成果，注意审稿者、读者及其他同行的认同感。(3) 采取适当的方式强调作者在本次研究中最重要的发现或贡献，让读者顺着逻辑的演进阅读论文。(4) 解释或定义专门术语或缩写词，以帮助编辑、审稿人和读者阅读稿件。(5)
6、适当地使用“I”，“We”或“Our”，以明确地指示作者本人的工作，叙述前人工作的欠缺以强调自己研究的创新时，应慎重且留有余地。,论文中的英语问题,英语不是问题认真，避免拼写和语法错误认真看几篇类似的好论文但不能照抄别人的表述,引言写作难点：,1如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性叙述了前人成果+However : However, little information（ attention.，work.，data，research） or few studies (investigations.,researchers.,attempts.) or no/none of
7、 these studies has (have) been done on( focused on, attempted to, conducted, investigated, studied ) (with respect to) or Previous research (studies, records) has (have) failed to consider (ignored, misinterpreted, neglected to, overestimated, underestimated, misleaded), thus, these previous results
8、 are inconcluisive( misleading, unsatisfactory, questionable, controversial.) or Uncertainties (discrepancies) still exist . 一般提出一种新方法，或者一种新方向 如果研究的方法以及方向和前人一样,强调自己工作的作用： However, data is still scarce (rare, less accurate) or there is still dearth of or We need to (aim to, have to) provide more docu
9、ments data (records, studies) or Further studies are still necessary (essential).,引言写作难点：,为了强调自己研究的重要性，However 之前介绍自己研究问题的反方面，另一方面等等：1)时间问题2)物性及研究手段问题3)研究区域问题4)不确定性5)提出自己的假设来验证2. 怎样提出观点1)如果观点不是这篇文章最新提出的，通常We confirm that.2)对于自己很自信的观点We believe that.3) 由数据推断出一定的结论，Results indicate, infer, suggest, im
10、ply that.4) 在及其特别的情况We put forward (discover, observe.) . for the first time.来强调自己的创新,引言写作难点：,5) 自己对所提出的观点不完全肯定We tentatively put forward (interpret this to.)Or The results may be due to (caused by) attributed to ,resulted from.Or This is probably a consequence of It seems that . can account for (in
11、terpret) this.Or It is possible that it stem from3.句子上下要有连贯，不能让句子之间独立. 连接词语: However, also, in addition, consequently, afterwards, moreover, Furthermore, further, although, unlike, in contrast, Similarly, Unfortunately, alternatively, parallel results, In order to, despite, For example, Compared wit
12、h other results, thus, therefore.,引言写作难点：,叙述有时间顺序的事件或者文献，最早的文献可用AA advocated it for the first time.接下来，可用Then BB further demonstrated that.再接下来，可用Afterwards, CC.如果还有，可用More recent studies by DD.叙述两种观点，要把它们截然分开AA pput forward that.In contrast, BB believeor Unlike AA, BB suggestor On the contrary (表明前
13、面的观点错误，如果只是表明两种对立的观点，用in contrast)， BB.,如果两种观点相近,AA suggest, Similarily, alternatively, BB.Or Also, BB or BB also does .,Example 1,.Moreover, it is not fully understood how C, N and S added to soils through FYM or mineral fertilizer are distributed in soil aggregates. The hypotheses are that the C,
14、N and S accumulation are influenced by the application of manure and mineral fertilizers and their rates but it also depends on soil aggregate sizes. The outcome would help to make understand the accumulation pattern of C, N and S and carbon sequestration potential under different fertilization prac
15、tices (manure or mineral fertilizers), which can provide the knowledge of C, N and S dynamics in soils. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to investigate the long-term effects of FYM and mineral fertilizer on (i) distribution of dry and water stable aggregates in the soil; (ii) concentrati
16、on and amount of C, N and S in different aggregate sizes, and (iii) C/S, C/N and N/S ratios in dry and water stable aggregates.,Example 2,In our previous research, one novel strain Leucobacter sp. Ch-1 was isolated from chromate slag for detoxification of chromium-containing slag 14. In order to obt
17、ain the highest reduction efficiency of Cr (VI), it is important to understand the effects of environmental conditions on Cr (VI) reduction by this bacteria strain. The hypotheses are that Leucobacter sp. Ch-1 growth and bio-reduction of Cr (VI) are dependent on pH and potential in environmental med
18、ium, and the regions of pH and Eh for Cr (VI) bio-reduction are different from that for chemical reduction. The outcome would help to provide the knowledge of thermodynamics of Cr (VI) reduction by bacteria. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) investigate the effects of pH and applie
19、d potential on the growth of Leucobacter sp. Ch-1 and Cr (VI) reduction; (ii) determine the appropriate pH and Eh ranges; (iii) establish the pH- Eh diagram for Leucobacter sp. Ch-1 -Cr-H2O system.,第五节.论文的主要部分II 正文（Main body),学术论文的正文一般包括Method，Result，Discussion三个部分。一Material and Method描述研究课题的具体内容、方法
20、，研究过程中所使用的设备、仪器、条件。要求：Readers must be able to reproduce your results, evaluate the validity of your results and the soundness of your methods, and follow the logic in the paper. 重复验证和估计其可靠性内容：实验装置、实验方法、实验和观察所用的材料和研究的基本过程，可借助图表、实物照片来表示。翔实、具体方法的描述要详略得当、重点突出,一Material and Method,需要注意的方面：（）不要遗漏动作的执行者如：“
21、To determine its respiratory quotient, the organism was.”“Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest”（）在简洁表达的同时要注意内容方面的逻辑性如：“Blood samples were taken from 48 informed and consenting patients.the subjects ranged in age from 6 months to 22 years”（）如果有多种可供选择的方法能采用，在引用文献时提及一下具体
22、的方法如：“cells were broken by as previously described9” “cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described9”,公布有关数据和陈述实验和观察到的研究事实结果。翔实准确,撰写按逻辑顺序, 非实验时间顺序, 不要罗列结果，要分析，各结果间有逻辑联系。一般是表格和图两种方式:图表应该结合起来使用必要的时候可以用表格来替代一些图.如果只有一个或很少的测定结果，在正文中用文字描述即可；如果数据较多，可采用图表形式来完整、详细的表述，文字部分则用来指出图表中资料的重要特性或趋
23、势。表格和图形具有“自明性”,图表的标题中应避免使用不常见的缩写或含义不明的公式符号。图片的格式每个杂志不一样。表格应用三线表.,二. Result,适当解释原始数据，以帮助读者的理解。图例（Figure legends）:以一个简短的、代表整幅图形的标题开始，接下来为对所用的每一个图标、每一个符号的简短描述。图例不应含有关于方法的任何细节，一般不应超过100个单词。文字表达应准确、简洁、清楚。避免使用冗长的词汇或句子来介绍或解释图表。为简洁、清楚起见，不要把图表的序号作为段落的主题句，应在句子中指出图表所揭示的结论，并把图表的序号放入括号中。Figure 1 shows the relati
24、onship between A and B“VSA was Significantly higher than B at all time points hecked (Figure 1).It is clearly shown in Table 1 that nocillin inhibited the growth of N. gonorrhoeae.“VSNocillin inhibited the growth of N. gonorrhoeae (Table 1).,二. Result,Data Commentary,Structure of Data CommentaryData
25、 commentaries usually have the following elements in the following order: location elements and /or summary statementshighlighting statementsdiscussions of implications, problems, exceptions, etc.,Table 5 shows the most common modes ofinfection for U.S businesses. As can be seen, in the majorityof c
26、ases, the source of the viruses infection can be detected, Highlight 1with disks being brought to the workplace from homebeing by far the most significant (43%). However, it is alarming to note that the source of Highlight 2nearly 30% of viruses cannot be determined. While it may be possible to elim
27、inate home-to-workplace infection by requiring computer users to run antiviral software on diskettes brought from home, businesses Implicationare still vulnerable to major data loss, especially from unidentifiable sources of infection.,Location + indicative summary,Location Elements and Summaries,Ma
28、ny data commentary sections begin with a sentence containing these two elements. (See table 6.) The passive can be also used. (See table 7.) We bring two points to your attention here. First, note the consistent use of the present tense. This occurs because the author is talking about his or her pre
29、sent text. Second, in English the active forms are as appropriate as the passive versions. (However, in a number of languages it may not be natural to say that a graph or other inanimate object reveals, gives, or suggests.) Now notice that all the examples so far have been indicative. By this we mea
30、n that we have been told nothing yet about what the common modes of infection might be, which fertilizers were actually used, or what the results of the second experiment were. Alternatively, the write could have actually summarized the data.a. Table 5 shows that home disks are the major source of c
31、omputer viruses.b. Table 2 gives the ingredients of the chosen fertilizer-SP401.c. Figure 4.2 suggests that the experimental results confirm the hypothesis. ( Notice the use of that in a and c sentences containing that-clauses do not easily go into the passive.,Starting a Data Commentary,Passives in
32、 Starting a Data Commentary,Highlighting Statements,The central sections of data commentaries consist of highlighting statements. Highlighting statements are generalizations that you can draw from the detailed of the data display. Highlighting statements need good judgment. They are an opportunity t
33、o show your intelligence. In particularly, they are an opportunity for you to demonstrate: that you can spot trends or regularities in the data, that you can separate more important findings from less important ones, and that you can make claims of appropriate strength.So, do not simple repeat all t
34、he details in words, attempt to cover all the information, or claim more than is reasonable or defensible.,Organization of highlinghtHighlighting statements are usually ordered from general to specific. In other words, major claims are followed by minor claims.,General statement More specific detail
35、 Specific detail Broad statement,Concluding a Commentary,As we have seem, qualifications can be important in making highlighting statements. They can be even more so in the concluding parts of a commentary. These parts are diagrammed in table 12, in the order in which they typically appear.,Explanat
36、ions and/or implications Usually required,Unexpected results or unsatisfactory data If necessary,TABLE 12. Concluding a Data Commentary,Data Commentary on Tables,Source: Hornce H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan.,TABLE 11. Years to Doctorate for Doctoral Programs at Univer
37、sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, for Students Entering in 1981-83,1Table 11 shows the number of years to complete a doctoral program for both U.S. and international students at a major research university. 2As can be seen, international students on average complete doctoral program in less time than U.S
38、. students in all division. 3The difference in years to completion ranges from a relatively low 0.3 years in physical sciences/engineering and humanities/arts to a high of 2.8 years in individual departmental programs. 4The consistent difference in time to degree is not fully understood at present.
39、5However, one key factor may be motivation. 6Many international students have considerable external pressures, including sponsorship/scholarship restrictions, family obligations, and employer demands, which could influence the length of time it makes to earn a doctorate.,Here are the instructors com
40、ments on the commentary. The instructor is a professor of comparative higher education. Mark the comments as reasonable (R)or unreasonable (U) and discuss your choice with a partner. If you find some comments reasonable, how would you edit the passage? There are no absolutely right or wrong answers
41、here.- 1. In sentences 2, 3, and 4 you throw away the key finding that more rapid progress to degree and higher completion rates is consistently in favor of international students across all six divisions. You need to highlight this more.- 2. You need to stress that based on present knowledge, we ca
42、n only speculate about the explanations. As it stands I find sentence 5 hard to interpret. Is it just your idea, or do you have any evidence for this claim?- 3. It is strange that you do not mention the English language factor. At least at first sight, this would seem to suggest that international s
43、tudents ought to be taking longer.- 4. Dont you think you ought to finish by suggesting ways of getting at the real causes of this striking phenomenon? Case studies? Interviews with faculty and students?,Data commentary on Graphs,So far we have only considered tables. Discussions of graphs essential
44、ly follow the same principals as those for tables with one major difference. Much of the vocabulary of commenting on graphs is quite different.,Look at the graph in figure 6 and the accompanying data commentary written by one of our students. We have, however, omitted certain words and phrases. Can
45、you complete the passage? Work with a partner or in a group.,Fig.6 Comparison of the actual CO2 levels with the model predictions The observed and predicted CO2 levels for 24 hours in a commercial building - in figure 6. The actual CO2 concentrations were -directly from sites in the building CO2 by
46、the Trapping Method. The predicted concentrations were calculated by using one of the available indoor air quality models. In this case, the “fully stirred and conservative reactor with internal source model”- since it was assumed that the air was completely replaced and mixed with fresh air every h
47、our, and there was no degradation. - shows that the predicted CO2 concentrations increase sharply after 8 A.M. and -steeply after 6 P.M. This is because the CO2 levels were-to be dependent on the number of people in the building since people produce CO2 as a result of respiration. However, the model
48、 overestimates the CO2 levels during the occupancy periods ( 8 A.M. to 5 P.M.) and -. The lower CO2 levels found in the occupancy period -several factors, such as the presence of plants, which generate oxygen, while using CO2. -, the predicted levels are lower than the - during the vacancy period because the model assumed that nobody was in the building after 6 P.M. and that the air was fully mixed. In fact, there might be overtime workers in the building after 6 P.M., or the ventilation rate -or underestimate -occupancy, overall, it performs well with a coefficient of 0.9 (r=0.9).,
