1、11 Basic Concepts 基本概念基本概念1.1 the definition of a word （The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a g
2、iven sound and meaning and syntactic function.）1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ：1.4 vo
3、cabulary1.5 classification of words词汇分类basic word stock 基本词汇nonbasic vocabulary非基本词汇by use frequency 按使用频率分：basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分 ：native words and borrowed words本地词和外来词all national character 全民性stabil
4、ity 稳定性productivity 多产性polysemy 一词多义collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词neutral in style 文体上中性frequent in use 使用频繁native words本地词borrowed words外来词denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词1. No enough letters: alphabet
5、 from Latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spellingobvious characteristics明显的特点(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between
6、 notions, words, etc.)22 DevelopmentIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2.1 Indo-European 印欧语Eastern set：东部诸语族Western set：西部诸语
7、族Balto-Slavic 波罗的海 -斯拉夫语Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语Armenian 亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语Celtic 凯尔特语Italic 意大利语Hellenic 希腊语GreekGermanic 日耳曼语Persian 波斯语Bengali 孟加拉国语Hindi 印地语Romany 普吉赛语Prussian 普鲁士语Lithuanian 立陶宛语Polish 波兰语Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语Russian 俄语Norwegian 挪威语Icelandic 冰岛语Danish 丹麦语Swedish
8、瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Flemish 佛兰德语English 英语Yiddish 依地语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语French 法语Italian 意大利语Roumanian 罗马尼亚语Scottish 苏格兰语Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语Scandinavian languages斯堪的纳维亚语Latin 拉丁语言32.2 Historical review历史概述2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Devel
9、opment50000-60000 words 5万6万间词汇Highly inflected 高度曲折complex endings 复杂的结尾vowel changes 元音变化French words 法语词汇leveled endings 水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700)早期现代英语Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)晚期现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词 no endings 无结尾（from a synthetic language (Old English) to the
10、present analytic language。从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。 ）the rapid development of modern science and technology （ 45 ）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ）social, economic and political changes（11 ）社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ）the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ）其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ）Creation 创词 formation of new words, most im
11、portantsemantic change 旧词新义 old form with new meaning, new usagesborrowing 借词 vital roleOld English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon古英语 盎格鲁-撒克逊语Middle English (1150-1500)中古英语Modern English (1500-up to now)现代英语three main sources三种主要来源43 Word Formation3.1 Morphemes 词素Definition: These minimal meaningful units a
12、re known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words“.词素是“构词中最小功能单位”。3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.The m
13、orpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。morpheme3.3 Types of Morphemes3.4 Root and StemThe affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素monomorphemic words：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.单语素词
14、 在句子中独立起作用allomorphs：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素free morpheme free root自由语素 自由词根bound morpheme粘着语素bound root ：fundamental meaning粘着词根 基本意义affix词缀（附加物）attach, modify附着，修饰Inflectional affix attached to the end of words 附在词尾曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系derivatio
15、nal affix派生词缀prefix前缀Suffix后缀affix词缀root or stem词根或词干Independent 独立free grammatical units 自由的语法单位complete meanings 完整的意义54 Word-formationWord formation 构词的方式4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses（子类） :Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivatio
16、nal affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法 （we shall
17、 classify prefixes on a semantic basisinto nine groups 我们可以在语义基础上将前缀分为九类）Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。affixation (30%-40%) 词
18、缀法（ 30%-40% ）compounding (28%-30%) 复合法(28% -30% ）conversion (26%) 转化法（26% ）shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法（8% -10%）blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 -5% ）clipping 删节acronymy 首字母缩略法prefixation 前缀法 before the word, modify the meaning 前置，改词意suffixation 后缀法 after the word, change word class 后置，改词性Neg
19、ative prefixes 否定前缀(a-, an-, dis-, in-, non-, un-)Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀(de-, dis-, un-)Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀(mal-, mis-, pseudo-)Prefixes of degree or size 程度大小前缀(arch-, co-, hyper-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, under-, ultra-, super-, sur-)Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀(anti-, cont
20、ra-, counter-)Locative prefixes 方位前缀(fore-, inter-, sub-, super-, trans-)Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀(ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re-)Number prefixes 数字前缀(bi-, di-, multi-, poly-, semi-, demi-, tri-, uni-, mono-)Miscellaneous prefixes 多种前缀(auto-, extra-, neo-, paleo-, pan-, proto-, tele-, vice-)64
21、.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem .Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly c
22、hange the word class. 后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。Noun suffixes 名词后缀Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise副词后缀Verb suffixes：-ate,-en,- (i)fy,-ize (-ise)动词后缀1) Denominal nouns 名词派生来的名词2) Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词3) De-adjective nouns :
23、-ity,-ness由形容词转化为名词4) Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist名词和形容词后缀a. Concrete 具体名词 eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-terb.Abstract 抽象名词 age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-shipa. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, -ant，-ee，-ent，-er （-or）(这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主
24、要表示人， 。 。 。)b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc：-al，-age，-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence ，-ing，-ment(这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、结果、过程、状态等。 。 。)1) Denominal suffixes：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y 名
25、词派生的后缀（加名词后）2) Deverbal suffixes:-able（-ible） ，-ive（-ative，-sive）动词派生的后缀（加动词后）74.2 Compounding 复合法 Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compoundis a lexical unit consisting of more than o
26、ne stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是“由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位”。4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面4.4
27、.2 Formation of Compounds 复合词的形成4.3 Conversion 转类法1).Phonetic features 语音特点 first element stress 第一个构词成分重音2).Semantic features 语义特点 unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词3).Grammatical features 语法特点 single grammatical role 独立的语法作用Noun compounds 名词性复合词Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词Verb compounds 动词复合词conversion 反
28、转backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法1.Conversion to noun转化为名词2. Conversion to verbs转化为动词3.Miscellaneous conversion混合反转1) Verb to noun动词转名词 2) Adjective to noun形容词转名词(1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉）(2) Event or activity 事件或行动(3) Result of the action 行动的结果(4) Doer of the action 行动的发出者(5) Tool
29、or instrument to do the action with 行动的工具(6) Place of the action 行动的地点(1) Words fully converted 完全转化的词 (2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词(3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化(1) To put in or on N 放入名词(2) To give N or to provide with N 提供名词(3) To remove N from 从消除名词(4) To do with N 用名词做(5) To be or act
30、 as N 象名词一样起作用(6) To make or change into N 变成名词(7) To send or go by N 用名词送去（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音（2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音 Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order Invert the verb and particle: p+v动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序， 动词小品词出现反转1）Noun to verb名词变动词2）Adjective to verb 形容词变动词8Co
31、nversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapt
32、ed or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation. 转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结 构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词blends fall into four major groups:Blending is
33、the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或行囊词。4.5 Clipping 截短法，删减法four common types of clipping:Another common way of makin
34、g a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法1. Front clipping 前删（aphaeresis）2. Back clipping 后删 (apocopy)3. Front and back clipping 前后删(4. syncope 删词腰5. P
35、hrase clipping 删短语1. head + tail 头尾2. head + head 头头3. head + word 头整词4. word + tail 整词尾Initialisms 首字母缩略词Acronyms 首字母拼音词1. Letters represent full words 字母代表所有词2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分（Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.
36、 一个字母一个字母念。 ）（Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. 首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。 ）94.7 Back-formation 逆构法Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It is a method of forming new words by cutting imagined affixes. Words created th
37、rough back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。(Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes. 通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式 Style: informal 非正式)4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的 定义模式：its the formation of new words b
38、y doing(doing是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change) 分类：1)词的自身长度变化(变形) ：加减法 （加：affixation，减：clipping, back-formation）2)词间组合：整体组合：compound; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/ 变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)5 Word Meaning 词义词义5.1 Meanings of meaningWords are but symbols,
39、 many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words b
40、ut belong to different categories. 意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。Abstract nouns 抽象名词Human nouns 人类名词Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他Adjectives 形容词Reference 参照Concept 概念Sense 语感names of people 人名names of places 地名names of books 书名trade names 商业名称10Generally speaking, the meaning of me
41、aning is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说， 意义的意义也许就是“语感” 。不像参照， “语感” 表示的是语言内部的关系。有意义的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。5.2 Motivation 理据理据Motivation accounts for the conne
42、ction between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。6 Sense Relati
43、ons and Semantic Field 语义关系和语义场语义关系和语义场sense relations语义关系6.1 Polysemy 歧义Definition: the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据 ：sounds suggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音Morphological Motivation
44、 形态理据 ：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合Semantic Motivation 语义理据 Etymological Motivation 词源理据 ：the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系the connection between the literal sense and fig
45、urative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系Grammatical Meaning 语法意义Lexical Meaning词法的意义1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义3. Affective meaning 情感意义4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义appreciative 褒义pejorative 贬义Conceptual Meaning 概念意义Associative Meaning联系意义polysemy 歧义homonymy 同音异义synonymy 同义antonymy 反义hypony
46、my 上下位关系116.1.1Two approches to Polysemy:歧义的两个角度6.1.2 Two Processes of Development: 发展的两个过程6.2 homonymy 同音异义Definition: words have different meanings but identical sounds or spelling 声音拼写相同意义不同。6.2.1 Types of Homonyms同音异义的种类6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms ：changes in sound and spelling; Borrowing; Shorten
47、ing同音异义的起源 声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants同音异义词和歧义词的区别6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms ：create puns for desired effect - humour, sarcasm, ridiculediachronic approach. 历时的角度 : growth and development 成长和发展primary meaning 基本义-derived meaning 派生义synchronic approach. 共
48、时的角度 : coexistence 共存central meaning 中心义-sencondary meaning 次要义(secondary -sometimes dominant 有时占优势)radiation 辐射型: center, every direction like rays;independent; back to central meaning. e.g: neck (多个意思同时并存)concatenation 连锁型: move away from first sense by shifts;no connection with original meaning;
49、Later meaning is related to preceding one.eg. : treacle, candidate （剩下一个意思）Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling完全同形同音异义词Homographs: identical spelling同形异音异义词Homophones: identical sound-most common同音异形异义词Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling完全同形同音异义词Homographs: identical spelling同形异音异义词Homophones: identical sound-most common同音异形异义词12同音异义词的修饰特点 为预期的效果制造双关语幽默，讽刺，嘲笑 6.3 Synonymy 同义词6.3.1 Definition of Synony
