1、Chapter 16Financial Leverage and Capital Structure Policy,McGraw-Hill/Irwin,Copyright 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.,Key Concepts and Skills,Understand the effect of financial leverage on cash flows and the cost of equity Understand the impact of taxes and bankruptcy on
2、 capital structure choice Understand the basic components of the bankruptcy process,16-2,Chapter Outline,The Capital Structure Question The Effect of Financial Leverage Capital Structure and the Cost of Equity Capital M&M Propositions I and II with Corporate Taxes Bankruptcy Costs Optimal Capital St
3、ructure The Pie Again The Pecking-Order Theory Observed Capital Structures A Quick Look at the Bankruptcy Process,16-3,Capital Restructuring,We are going to look at how changes in capital structure affect the value of the firm, all else equal Capital restructuring involves changing the amount of lev
4、erage a firm has without changing the firms assets The firm can increase leverage by issuing debt and repurchasing outstanding shares The firm can decrease leverage by issuing new shares and retiring outstanding debt,16-4,Choosing a Capital Structure,What is the primary goal of financial managers? M
5、aximize stockholder wealth We want to choose the capital structure that will maximize stockholder wealth We can maximize stockholder wealth by maximizing the value of the firm or minimizing the WACC,16-5,The Effect of Leverage,How does leverage affect the EPS and ROE of a firm? When we increase the
6、amount of debt financing, we increase the fixed interest expense If we have a really good year, then we pay our fixed cost and we have more left over for our stockholders If we have a really bad year, we still have to pay our fixed costs and we have less left over for our stockholders Leverage ampli
7、fies the variation in both EPS and ROE,16-6,Example: Financial Leverage, EPS and ROE Part I,We will ignore the effect of taxes at this stage What happens to EPS and ROE when we issue debt and buy back shares of stock?,16-7,Example: Financial Leverage, EPS and ROE Part II,Variability in ROE Current:
8、ROE ranges from 6% to 20% Proposed: ROE ranges from 2% to 30% Variability in EPS Current: EPS ranges from $.60 to $2.00 Proposed: EPS ranges from $.20 to $3.00 The variability in both ROE and EPS increases when financial leverage is increased,16-8,Break-Even EBIT,Find EBIT where EPS is the same unde
9、r both the current and proposed capital structures If we expect EBIT to be greater than the break-even point, then leverage may be beneficial to our stockholders If we expect EBIT to be less than the break-even point, then leverage is detrimental to our stockholders,16-9,Example: Break-Even EBIT,16-
10、10,Example: Homemade Leverage and ROE,Current Capital Structure Investor borrows $500 and uses $500 of her own to buy 100 shares of stock Payoffs: Recession: 100(0.60) - .1(500) = $10 Expected: 100(1.30) - .1(500) = $80 Expansion: 100(2.00) - .1(500) = $150 Mirrors the payoffs from purchasing 50 sha
11、res of the firm under the proposed capital structure,Proposed Capital Structure Investor buys $250 worth of stock (25 shares) and $250 worth of bonds paying 10%. Payoffs: Recession: 25(.20) + .1(250) = $30 Expected: 25(1.60) + .1(250) = $65 Expansion: 25(3.00) + .1(250) = $100 Mirrors the payoffs fr
12、om purchasing 50 shares under the current capital structure,16-11,Capital Structure Theory,Modigliani and Miller (M&M)Theory of Capital Structure Proposition I firm value Proposition II WACC The value of the firm is determined by the cash flows to the firm and the risk of the assets Changing firm va
13、lue Change the risk of the cash flows Change the cash flows,16-12,Capital Structure Theory Under Three Special Cases,Case I Assumptions No corporate or personal taxes No bankruptcy costs Case II Assumptions Corporate taxes, but no personal taxes No bankruptcy costs Case III Assumptions Corporate tax
14、es, but no personal taxes Bankruptcy costs,16-13,Case I Propositions I and II,Proposition I The value of the firm is NOT affected by changes in the capital structure The cash flows of the firm do not change; therefore, value doesnt change Proposition II The WACC of the firm is NOT affected by capita
15、l structure,16-14,Case I - Equations,WACC = RA = (E/V)RE + (D/V)RD RE = RA + (RA RD)(D/E) RA is the “cost” of the firms business risk, i.e., the risk of the firms assets (RA RD)(D/E) is the “cost” of the firms financial risk, i.e., the additional return required by stockholders to compensate for the
16、 risk of leverage,16-15,Figure 16.3,16-16,Example: Case I,Data Required return on assets = 16%; cost of debt = 10%; percent of debt = 45% What is the cost of equity? RE = 16 + (16 - 10)(.45/.55) = 20.91% Suppose instead that the cost of equity is 25%, what is the debt-to-equity ratio? 25 = 16 + (16
17、- 10)(D/E) D/E = (25 - 16) / (16 - 10) = 1.5 Based on this information, what is the percent of equity in the firm? E/V = 1 / 2.5 = 40%,16-17,The CAPM, the SML and Proposition II,How does financial leverage affect systematic risk? CAPM: RA = Rf + A(RM Rf) Where A is the firms asset beta and measures
18、the systematic risk of the firms assets Proposition II Replace RA with the CAPM and assume that the debt is riskless (RD = Rf) RE = Rf + A(1+D/E)(RM Rf),16-18,Business Risk and Financial Risk,RE = Rf + A(1+D/E)(RM Rf) CAPM: RE = Rf + E(RM Rf) E = A(1 + D/E) Therefore, the systematic risk of the stoc
19、k depends on: Systematic risk of the assets, A (Business risk) Level of leverage, D/E (Financial risk),16-19,Case II Cash Flow,Interest is tax deductible Therefore, when a firm adds debt, it reduces taxes, all else equal The reduction in taxes increases the cash flow of the firm How should an increa
20、se in cash flows affect the value of the firm?,16-20,Example: Case II,16-21,Interest Tax Shield,Annual interest tax shield Tax rate times interest payment 6,250 in 8% debt = 500 in interest expense Annual tax shield = .34(500) = 170 Present value of annual interest tax shield Assume perpetual debt f
21、or simplicity PV = 170 / .08 = 2,125 PV = D(RD)(TC) / RD = DTC = 6,250(.34) = 2,125,16-22,Case II Proposition I,The value of the firm increases by the present value of the annual interest tax shield Value of a levered firm = value of an unlevered firm + PV of interest tax shield Value of equity = Va
22、lue of the firm Value of debt Assuming perpetual cash flows VU = EBIT(1-T) / RU VL = VU + DTC,16-23,Example: Case II Proposition I,Data EBIT = 25 million; Tax rate = 35%; Debt = $75 million; Cost of debt = 9%; Unlevered cost of capital = 12% VU = 25(1-.35) / .12 = $135.42 million VL = 135.42 + 75(.3
23、5) = $161.67 million E = 161.67 75 = $86.67 million,16-24,Figure 16.4,16-25,Case II Proposition II,The WACC decreases as D/E increases because of the government subsidy on interest payments RA = (E/V)RE + (D/V)(RD)(1-TC) RE = RU + (RU RD)(D/E)(1-TC) Example RE = 12 + (12-9)(75/86.67)(1-.35) = 13.69%
24、 RA = (86.67/161.67)(13.69) + (75/161.67)(9)(1-.35) RA = 10.05%,16-26,Example: Case II Proposition II,Suppose that the firm changes its capital structure so that the debt-to-equity ratio becomes 1. What will happen to the cost of equity under the new capital structure? RE = 12 + (12 - 9)(1)(1-.35) =
25、 13.95% What will happen to the weighted average cost of capital? RA = .5(13.95) + .5(9)(1-.35) = 9.9%,16-27,Figure 16.5,16-28,Case III,Now we add bankruptcy costs As the D/E ratio increases, the probability of bankruptcy increases This increased probability will increase the expected bankruptcy cos
26、ts At some point, the additional value of the interest tax shield will be offset by the increase in expected bankruptcy cost At this point, the value of the firm will start to decrease, and the WACC will start to increase as more debt is added,16-29,Bankruptcy Costs,Direct costs Legal and administra
27、tive costs Ultimately cause bondholders to incur additional losses Disincentive to debt financing Financial distress Significant problems in meeting debt obligations Firms that experience financial distress do not necessarily file for bankruptcy,16-30,More Bankruptcy Costs,Indirect bankruptcy costs
28、Larger than direct costs, but more difficult to measure and estimate Stockholders want to avoid a formal bankruptcy filing Bondholders want to keep existing assets intact so they can at least receive that money Assets lose value as management spends time worrying about avoiding bankruptcy instead of
29、 running the business The firm may also lose sales, experience interrupted operations and lose valuable employees,16-31,Figure 16.6,16-32,Figure 16.7,16-33,Conclusions,Case I no taxes or bankruptcy costs No optimal capital structure Case II corporate taxes but no bankruptcy costs Optimal capital str
30、ucture is almost 100% debt Each additional dollar of debt increases the cash flow of the firm Case III corporate taxes and bankruptcy costs Optimal capital structure is part debt and part equity Occurs where the benefit from an additional dollar of debt is just offset by the increase in expected ban
31、kruptcy costs,16-34,Figure 16.8,16-35,Managerial Recommendations,The tax benefit is only important if the firm has a large tax liability Risk of financial distress The greater the risk of financial distress, the less debt will be optimal for the firm The cost of financial distress varies across firm
32、s and industries, and as a manager you need to understand the cost for your industry,16-36,Figure 16.9,16-37,The Value of the Firm,Value of the firm = marketed claims + nonmarketed claims Marketed claims are the claims of stockholders and bondholders Nonmarketed claims are the claims of the governme
33、nt and other potential stakeholders The overall value of the firm is unaffected by changes in capital structure The division of value between marketed claims and nonmarketed claims may be impacted by capital structure decisions,16-38,The Pecking-Order Theory,Theory stating that firms prefer to issue
34、 debt rather than equity if internal financing is insufficient. Rule 1: Use internal financing first Rule 2: Issue debt next, new equity last The pecking-order theory is at odds with the tradeoff theory: There is no target D/E ratio Profitable firms use less debt Companies like financial slack,16-39
35、,Observed Capital Structure,Capital structure does differ by industry Differences according to Cost of Capital 2010 Yearbook by Ibbotson Associates, Inc. Lowest levels of debt Drugs with 8.46% debt Computer equipment with 10.02% debt Highest levels of debt Cable television with 193.88% debt Airlines
36、 with 177.19% debt,16-40,Work the Web Example,You can find information about a companys capital structure relative to its industry, sector and the S&P 500 at Reuters Click on the web surfer to go to the site Choose a company and get a quote Choose Financials,16-41,Bankruptcy Process Part I,Business
37、failure business has terminated with a loss to creditors Legal bankruptcy petition federal court for bankruptcy Technical insolvency firm is unable to meet debt obligations Accounting insolvency book value of equity is negative,16-42,Bankruptcy Process Part II,Liquidation Chapter 7 of the Federal Ba
38、nkruptcy Reform Act of 1978 Trustee takes over assets, sells them and distributes the proceeds according to the absolute priority rule Reorganization Chapter 11 of the Federal Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978 Restructure the corporation with a provision to repay creditors,16-43,Quick Quiz,Explain the e
39、ffect of leverage on EPS and ROE What is the break-even EBIT, and how do we compute it? How do we determine the optimal capital structure? What is the optimal capital structure in the three cases that were discussed in this chapter? What is the difference between liquidation and reorganization?,16-4
40、4,Ethics Issues,Suppose managers of a firm know that the company is approaching financial distress. Should the managers borrow from creditors and issue a large one-time dividend to shareholders? How might creditors control this potential transfer of wealth?,16-45,Comprehensive Problem,Assuming perpetual cash flows in Case II - Proposition I, what is the value of the equity for a firm with EBIT = $50 million, Tax rate = 40%, Debt = $100 million, cost of debt = 9%, and unlevered cost of capital = 12%?,16-46,End of Chapter,16-47,
