1、1语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communic
2、ation. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness re
3、fers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1. arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2. arbitrariness at the syntactic level3. arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2 Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of
4、 having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursi
5、veness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eve
6、nts and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitud
7、es, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has
8、three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms
9、to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of
10、 thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social
11、 status of persons, as in marriage 2ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能（被打 fuck 吃惊 god）The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is s
12、o crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communion 寒暄交谈（无实质， “早上好” ）The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comforta
13、ble relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能 The metalingual function means people can us
14、e language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one communi
15、ty, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure
16、, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or si
17、mply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1
18、.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and socie
19、ty, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field
20、 which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.31.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式 vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the
21、 members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Dont say X.” is a prescripti
22、ve command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the natur
23、e of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时（历史上一点） vs 历时（历史长河）A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a langu
24、age through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic s
25、tudy. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist
26、 should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力 VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge abo
27、ut the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers compete
28、nce is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not
29、 exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view
30、than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics 语音学 studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics 发音语言学 the s
31、tudy of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics 声学语言学 the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学 the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology 音系学 is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “dis
32、cover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” 发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the in
33、itiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.42.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consist
34、s of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible fricti
35、on. Vowels are produced without obstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation 发音方式 the place of articulation 发音部位发音方式 refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes t
36、hrough certain parts of the vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位 refers to the point where a consonant is made. Pra
37、ctically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. 2.4.5 The consonants of English1. Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often
38、 been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.2. the consonants of English can be described in the following way:p voiceless bilabial stopb voiced bilabial sto
39、ps voiceless alveolar fricativez voiced alveolar fricativem bilabial nasaln alveolar nasall alveolar lateralj palatal approximanth glottal fricativer alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1. the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2. the position of the highest part
40、 of the tongue(front, central, back)3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4. lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】 high front tense unrounded vowel【u】 high back lax rounded vowel【】 mid central lax unrounded vowel
41、 2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation 协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面（following sound ）叫 anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面 perseverative 52.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The
42、 use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given
43、language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones 音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小对比对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and wh
44、ich also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme th
45、eoryPhoneme （音位） ：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription
46、音位转写放在 abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. e.g.: pot, spot, cup: ph vs. p vs. p (unreleased)i) complementary distribution 互补分布ii) free variationiii)phon
47、emic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimila
48、tion: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules
49、The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. 2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is e
