1、Fourteen Steps to a Clearly Written Technical Paper十四个步骤明确书面技术论by R. T. Compton, Jr.A technical paper will usually have four sections. The purpose of each of these sections is as follows:技术论文技术通常会有四个部分，如下：Section I: Introduction The introduction should do the following:1. Open up the subject. (The s
2、ubject will be electromagnetic fields in cylindrical dielectric geometrics, adaptive arrays in packet radio, or whatever.)2. Survey past work relevant to this paper.3. Describe the problem addressed in this paper, and show how this work relates to, or augments, previous work.4. Describe the assumpti
3、ons made in general terms, and state what results have been obtained. (This gives the reader an initial overview of what problem is addressed in the paper and what has been achieved.)5. Overview the contents of the paper. (“Section II contains our formulation of the problem. Section III contains the
4、 experimental data.”)第一步:介绍应做以下介绍:1。打开话题。(这个话题在圆柱电磁场电介质几何学图形, 自适应阵列数据包广播,或者其他的) 。2。调查过去与本文有关的作品。3。在论文中描述这个问题,展示这个项目如何与之前的作品联系，以及如何增强。4。做一般的假设,以及声明得到什么。(这给读者一个初步的概述,以及是如何实现。)5。概述论文的内容。(“第二部分包含我们的构想这一问题。第三部分包含实验数据”)Section II: Formulation of the ProblemThis section should do three things:1. Define the
5、 problem to be considered in detail. Typically this section might begin with something like: “Consider a packet radio system consisting of a single central repeater surrounded by user terminals. Each user transmits packets to the central repeater using a slotted ALOHA protocol. The transmissions fro
6、m all users are assumed to be on the same frequency.” The discussion should proceed in this way until the problem is completely defined.2. Define all terminology and notation used. Usually the terminology and notation are defined along with the problem itself.3. Develop the equations on which your r
7、esults will be based and/or describe any experimental systems.第二部分:问题的描述这部分该做三件事:1。定义要考虑的问题细节。通常这部分可能开始可以这样说:“考虑一个包无线电系统组成的一个单一的中央中继器被用户终端。每个用户发送数据包到中央中继器使用开槽 ALOHA 协议。所有用户的传输假定在同一频率” 应该以这种方式进行的讨论直到完全定义的问题。2。定义所有的术语和符号使用。通常情况，术语和符号被定义为问题本身。3。开发你的方程将建立和/ 或描述任何结果实验系统。Section III: ResultsThis section p
8、resents the detailed results you have obtained. If the paper is theoretical, you will probably show curves obtained from your equations. If the paper is experimental, you will be presenting curves showing the measurement results. In order to choose the proper curves to present, you must first be cle
9、ar what point you are trying to convey to the reader. The curves can then be chosen to illustrate this point. Whether your paper is theoretical or experimental, you must provide a careful interpretation of what your results mean and why they behave as they do.第三部分:结果本节介绍了你获得的详细的结果。如果这篇论文理论上,你可能会间接从你
10、的方程式中得到。如果这篇论文是实验,你会提出曲线显示测量结果。为了选择适当的曲线,你必须首先清楚知道你想传达给读者的东西是什么。然后才可以选择曲线来描述。你的论文是理论还是实验, 你必须提供严谨的结果来解释你的结果和为什么他们会是这样的。Section IV: ConclusionThis section should summarize what has been accomplished in the paper. Many readers will read only the Introduction and Conclusion of your paper. The Conclusio
11、n should be written so they can be understood by someone who has not read the main work of the paper. This is the common format for an engineering paper. Of course, the names of the sections may differ slightly from those above, but the purpose of each section will usually be as described. Some pape
12、rs include additional sections or differ from the above outline in one way or another. However, the outline just presented is a good starting point for writing a technical paper.To write your paper, you should proceed as follows:第四部分:结论这部分总结应该在本文完成之前。许多读者只会阅读你论文中的介绍和总结。所以结论应该写成即使没有读过论文主题部分也能理解这篇论文的样
13、子。这是一个对于工程论文通用的格式。当然,部分的名字可能和以上的不同,但每个部分的目的就和以上说的一样。一些论文会从不同方式中增加栏目或者有一些不一样的部分。然而,这些概述只是提出了一个写好一篇论文的轮廓而已。写论文,你该沿着如下写的去做:Step 1: Start by writing a complete first draft of your paper, except for the Introduction and Conclusion. (It is easiest to leave the Introduction and Conclusion until after the m
14、ain body of the paper is written.) In writing your paper, keep the following in mind:1. You must always present the big picture first and then work towards the details. The other way around will not work. This is especially true in the beginning of Section II, where you are explaining the problem yo
15、u are studying.2. If you get stuck and cannot figure out how to explain something, a useful trick is to imagine that you are telling a very good friend what you are working on: just put down the words as you would say them to your friend. In writing your first draft, do not worry if the wording is n
16、ot perfect. Polishing the document comes later. When you are finished with your first draft, put it away for a couple of days before you begin Step 2.第一步:首先起草一个完整的论文方案, 除了介绍和结论。(这是最简单的离开介绍和结论直到论文的主体写)。写你的论文,记住:1。你要一直有大局观,然后在细节上努力。其它方式不会起到好的效果。在你解释你正在研究的问题的这个第二部分时，这个技巧更是很受用。2。如果你受困于不能确定如何解释一些东西,一个有用的
17、技巧就是想象一下,你告诉一个非常好朋友你是做什么:把这句话你会说他们你的朋友。在写你的初稿,请不要担心的措辞是不完美的。之后再雕琢你的文字。当你和你的初稿完成,把它放下几天后你再开始的第二部步。Step 2: Make sure the ideas in the paper are in the right order. If not, move blocks of the paper around with your text editor until they are. Ask yourself: “Can the reader understand every passage stric
18、tly from the material up to that point?” If not, add material or move ideas around. Make sure there are not gaps in your logical arguments, and make sure you are not implicitly assuming that the reader understands something needed to follow your arguments, even though you have not stated it. The rea
19、der probably understands less than you think.步骤2:确保想法是以正确的顺序。如果不是 ,在编辑器里面调整直到正确为之。问问你自己:“读者可以完全理解每一个通道从材料得到的东西吗?“如果不是这样,添加材料或移动的想法。确定你的逻辑没有漏洞,并确保你不是隐式地假定读者了解一些需要跟进你的论点,即使你没有说它。读者了解的东西可能比你预想的要少。Step 3: Work on the transitions between ideas. Make sure that at each stage the reader has a roadmap of whe
20、re he or she is going. The reader must be able to see the big picture. At the beginning of each section, make clear to the reader in advance what the purpose of that section will be and how that section relates to the preceding material. At the end of each section, you may also want to remind the re
21、ader that you have now completed what you set out to do in that section. Then point out what the purpose of the next section will be, and so forth. These connecting statements are called transitions. The reader must always be able to see where you are going and why and how far you have progressed.第三
22、步：花心思在不同的想法中转换。确保在每个阶段的读者有一个路线图，他或她去哪里。确保读者必须能够看到整体。在每一段的开头，先向读者清楚地知道这一段的目的是什么，以及如何与前面的材料有关。在每一节的结尾，你可能还想提醒读者，你现在已经完成了你在这一段中所做的。然后指出下一节的目的是什么，等等。这些连接语句称为转换。读者必须始终能够看到你将要去哪里，以及为什么和你有多远。Step 4: Check each paragraph for unity. Each paragraph should have one main point. Usually the central point of each
23、 paragraph is stated in a topical sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, but not always. You should not mix different ideastogether in the same paragraph. If you are having trouble getting a certain section of your paper to sound right, go through that section one paragraph at a time and ask yo
24、urself what the main point of each paragraph is. Foggy writing is often due to mixed-up paragraphs.步骤 4:检查每一段，确保一致。每个段落都应该有一个主观点。通常，中心点段落是在一个局部句子段落的开头,但不是总是如此。你不应该混合不同的想法在相同的段落。如果你在得到一个听起来正确的部分中遇到困难，就先继续这一段并且询问自己，到底每一段的主观点是什么。模糊不清的文章往往是由于段落混乱。Step 5: Work on the sentences to reduce the fog index. Th
25、e Fog Index F is definedas F = 0.4(L + P), where L is the average number of words per sentence and P is the average number of polysyllables per 100 words of text 1. (A polysyllable is a word with three or more syllables.) To evaluate the Fog Index for your paper, count the number of words per senten
26、ce and the number of polysyllables per 100 words for a representative portion of your paper five or six hundred words long. Ideally, you should strive for a fog index less than 10. In technical writing, it is sometimes difficult to get the Fog Index below 10, but a Fog Index above 15 is a warning th
27、at your material will be very hard for a reader to follow.Consider the following examples taken from typical office memos. Note that both memos say the same thing.Fog Index = 35: “In order to eliminate the possibility of errors occurring in the timethrough transposition of numbers or typing errors,
28、each of the Division Planning Offices should set up a file of time cards showing all authorized project numbersand make a daily check of the charges on Accounting Department to be sure thatonly authorized numbers are used.” (1 sentence, 69 words, 13 polysyllables) Fog Index = 11: “It is easy to tran
29、spose digits and make typing errors when entering project numbers. We suggest each Division Planning Office set up a file of time cards showing all authorized project numbers. Then all charges should bechecked each day before sending time sheets to the Accounting Department.” (3 sentences. 48 words,
30、 5 polysyllables)To reduce the fog index, you must do two things: (1) reduce the length of your sentences (by breaking long sentences into shorter ones), and (2) get rid of as many complicated words as possible (by using simpler words instead).第五步:减少字句中的模糊指数。模糊指数 F 定义作为 F = 0.4(L + P),其中 L 是平均水平每个句子
31、的单词数量和 P 平均每 100 多音节词的话语文本1。(多音节词是词有三个或三个以上音节)。评估模糊索引你的论文数每句子和单词量每 100 字多音节词代表你的论文 5 的一部分或六百字。理想情况下,您应该争取模糊指数小于 10。在技术写作, 有时很难得到模糊指数低于 10,但是模糊指数高于 15 是一个警告你的材料将会为读者非常困难跟随。考虑下面的例子从典型的办公备忘录。请注意,这两个备忘录说, 同样的事情。模糊指数= 35:“为了消除错误发生在时间的可能性费用与工程相关工作，通过换位的数字或打字错误,每个部门的计划办公室应该建立一个文件的时间卡显示所有授权的项目数字每天检查的费用表转发到会
32、计部门,以确保只有经过授权的使用数量。 ”(1 句子,69 字,13 多音节词)模糊指数= 11:“很容易调换当数字, 让打字错误进入项目数字。我们建议每部门规划办公室成立了一个文件时间卡显示所有授权项目数字。然后所有指控每天检查之前发送的时间表到会计部门。 ”(3 句子。48 个单词,5 多音节词)减少模糊指数,你必须做两个事情:(1)减少长句子(通过将长句分解成短的),(2)尽可能少用复杂的词( 用简单的词代替)。Step 6: Get rid of as many passive verbs as possible. Always check your paper for passive
33、 verbs. (“The data were measured and the results were correlated.”) Change as many verbs as possible into the active form. (“We measured the data and correlated the results.”) Using too many passive verbs makes your writing boring. Editors comment: At their worst, passive verbs can make writing inco
34、mprehensible. The reader always needs to know who is doing what to whom, and a passive verb often obscures both the agent and the recipient of an action. In Teds example, the passive form obscures who it was that measured the data and correlated the results. 第六步:消减尽可能多的被动词语。总是检查你的论文被动的动词。(“数据被测量和结果被
35、证明。 ”)变化尽可能多的动词进入活跃的形式。(“ 我们测量的数据和使用太多的相关结果。 ”)被动动词让你写无聊。编者评论:最糟糕的, 被动的动词可以写难以理解。读者总是需要知道是谁谁做什么,一个被动的动词往往掩盖了代理和接收方的行动。在泰德的例子中,被动的形式掩盖了谁是凶手测量数据和关联结果。Step 7: Use verbs more than nouns. Do not bury the main action of your sentences in nouns or adjectives. Instead, let the verbs carry the action. Consid
36、er theseexamples:Example: “The annual report produced a disappointed reaction from the sponsor.” Revision: “The annual report disappointedthe sponsor.Example: “It is our expectation that we will see radiation pattern improvement when the antenna is elevated.”Revision: “We expect to improve the radia
37、tion pattern by elevating the antenna.”Your writing will sound better if you move the action into the verbs.步骤 7:使用动词多于名词。不要将你的句子的主要作用埋在名词或形容词上。相反,让动词的动作。考虑这些例子:示例:“ 年度报告了失望从赞助商的反应。 ”修改:“年度报告失望赞助商。示例:“ 这是我们的期望将辐射模式改进当天线高架。 ”修改:“我们希望改善通过提升天线辐射方式” 。假如你在你的词语中假如动作，你你的文章听起来会更好。Step 8: Get rid of as many
38、abstract words as possible. Your paper will practically always sound better if you use specific words instead of abstract words. For example, instead of “We determined the conditions for performance improvement,” say “We measured the noise variance necessary to increase the bit error probability by
39、5 percent.” The problem is that abstract words often convey a different meaning to the reader than the one you intended.第八步:消除尽可能多的抽象词语。你的论文将如果你使用几乎总是听起来更好特定的单词而不是抽象的单词。例如,而不是“我们确定性能的条件改善,”说“我们测量了噪声方差需要增加一点误差概率5%。 “问题是,通常情况下，抽象词汇向读者传达和你想象中不同的意思。Step 9: Check for consistent use of verb tense. Many te
40、chnical professionals change verb tense frequently between the future and present tense for no reason. You should check that your verb tense is consistent throughout the paper. Usually it is simplest just to stick to the present tense: “We present our results in Section III,” instead of “We shall pr
41、esent our results in Section III.” (Note that the correct future tense for the first person (I or we) is “shall”, not will.”第九步: 使用动词时态的一致性检查。许多技术专业人员动词时态变化之间的频繁未来和现在时态。你应该检查你的动词时态是什么的在整个论文是否一致。通常它简单的只是坚持用现在时态:“我们提出我们的结果部分”而不是“我们会在第三部分展示结果。”(注意, 正确的第一人称( 我将来时态或者我们 )是“可以”, 不是将要。”Step 10: Do not use “
42、this” as a pronoun. Avoid sentences such as “This is.” and “This gives.” When “this” is used as a pronoun, its antecedent is often missing or poorly defined, and the resulting writing usually looks amateurish. A typical example in engineering writing is, “By increasing the impedance, the radiation l
43、evel is increased and the electric field becomes stronger. This means that.” What specifically does “this” refer to? (Moreover, who did the “increasing”?) The solution to this problem is to change “this” to an adjective by inserting asuitable noun. For example, use “This result is.” “This difficulty
44、 is due to.” and so forth.第十步:不要使用代词“这” 。避免句子, 如“这是”,“这给了这种“被用作“当”代词,其前期往往缺失或差的定义,以及由此产生的写作通常看上去不专业。一个典型的工程写作例子,”增加阻抗、辐射水平增加,电场变得更强。这意味着” “这”指什么特别?(此外,“增加”了吗?)此问题的解决方案是改变“这”通过插入一个形容词合适的名词。例如,使用“这结果是” “这困难是由于”,等等。Step 11: Check your entire document for subtle grammatical mistakes. We are not talking
45、here about elementary grammar problems. Presumably you do not write egregious sentences such as “He dont got no potatoes.” Rather, the idea is to watch out for more subtle problems, which are very common in engineering writing 2步骤 11:检查您的整个文档细微的语法错误。我们不是在这里谈论基本语法问题。大概你不写过分的句子,如“他没有不土豆。 “相反,在很多的工程论文中
46、，我们的想法是为了发现更多微妙的问题 2Step 12: Polish and polish. Check that the sentence rhythm and timing are pleasing, and that the ideas flow clearly and simply. If some section does not quite sound right, work on it some more. Eventually you will get the right wording. You are looking for subtle changes that wil
47、l improve the way the paper “flows.” The main tools youshould use for this step are: (1) reducing the Fog Index by shortening sentences and eliminating big words, as discussed in Step 5, and (2) checking each paragraph to make sure it has one main point, as described in Step 4. You will get better a
48、t this step over time, as you develop a “feel” for clear writing.步骤 12:波兰和波兰。检查句子的节奏和时间是令人愉快的,想法表述清晰和简单。如果某些部分不听起来很合理,就要做更多的工作。最终你会得到正确的措辞。你正在寻找微妙的变化,将会改善论文的“流畅度” 。你的主要应该使用这个步骤:(1)减少模糊指数缩短句子和消除夸大的词语,正如第 5 步中所讨论的 ,和(2) 检查每一段以确保它有一个要点,在步骤 4 中描述。在这一步中随着时间的推移 ,你会得到更好的当你开发一个明确写作的“感觉” 。Step 13: Write the
49、Conclusion. This Conclusion section should simply summarize for the reader what has been presented in the paper.步骤 13:写结论。这一结论部分应简单概括为读者所提出的论文。Step 14: Write the Introduction. The Introduction is frequently the hardest part of the paper to write. It must be smoothly written. The Introduction should address each of the items mentioned in the outline on Page 1. Moreover, the points discussed in Steps 1-13 should all be used to polish your Introduction until it is as smooth aspossible.步骤 14:写介绍。介绍通常是最困难的部分论文的写作。这部分一定要很流畅写出来。介绍应该在 1 页解决每个项目提到的大纲。此外 ,讨论点在步骤 1-13 都应该被用于波兰你
