1、指示语,Deixis,1. What is Deixis?,1) Knowledge is power. 2) I am the British Prime Minister. 3) The President met the British Prime Minister there yesterday.Q. Can truth-conditional semantics account for these three sentences equally well? If not, where are the differences between them?,1.2 Defining Dei
2、xis,A technical term from Greek, meaning “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, which is also called an indexical.A deictic expression is used to indicate something in the immediate context. So a deictic expression encodes info
3、rmation in context (Yule, 1996),Deictics are expressions whose interpretations make essential reference to certain aspects of their contexts of utterance, including the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal and social location.To put it simply, those expressions whose me
4、aning cannot be fully understood without reference to the context in which they are uttered, or whose references depend critically on the context in which they are uttered (Levinson, 1983),classification,Person deixis: me, you, etc.人称指示 spatial/place deixis: here, there地点指示 Temporal/time deixis: now
5、, then时间指示Others termed discourse deixis (that, this) Social deixis (tu, vous) 篇章指示 社交指示,Deictic expressions include definite noun phrases, personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, tenses, etc. 表空间位置的副词：Johnny lives upstairs.Harry lives nearby.,2. Pragmatic description,2.1 categories used to desc
6、ribe deixisPerson deixis: the role of participants 1st person: the speaker 2nd person: the hearer 3rd person: third party (neither the speaker nor the hearer),学生：“病了，今天不能去上课了， 他让我跟您请个假。” 教授：“好的，我知道了。那么，你是谁？” 学生：“是我的同屋。”（Levinson，1983） 人称指示是以发话人作基准的，受话人理解话语时自然要对人称指示作相应的变换。这已成为一条交际的准则。,第一人称指示语 （1）Lets
7、 go to the cinema. （2）? Lets go to see you tomorrow. 根据夸克等人（Quirk et. al）合著的当代英语语法（1973），lets在非常通俗的口语中有时也可用作单数，这就是说它可以不包括谈话的对方，而只借指单数的“让我”，相当于let me：Lets give you a hand. （Let me give you a hand.） 汉语？我们我？,第一人称复数代词借指单数的功能在汉语中是常见的。（1）经过观察和分析，我们认为 （2）本文只对乔姆斯基的转换生成语法作一概述，有关它的近期发展我们准备另文介绍。 （3）咱们（我）是个计算机盲
8、，不会拨弄那玩意儿。,2nd person,1. We should not do it, Tom. 2. You should not do it, Tom. Style: intimate汉语第二人称指示语？ 第二人称指示信息有时可以通过第一人称指示语表达。 （1）我相信，我们（你们）每个青年同志一定不会辜负党和国家对我们（你们）的期望。 （2）你要记住，我们（你）是学生，我们（你）的主要任务是学习。,（3）同志，咱们（你们）这儿有海尔电冰箱吗？ （4）咱们（你，对小孩）别哭，妈妈给你拿好吃的。 Q. 汉语中哪些情况下第二人称指示信息可以用第一人称指示语来表达？ 这种现象的语用学解释？,第
9、二人称指示还可以泛指任何人，这时用单数复数代词表示？（1）你想在事业上取得成功，你就必须下一番苦功夫。 （2）他那刻苦钻研的精神你不能不佩服。 （3）这个人性格内向，不善表达，你问他十句，他才答你一句。,Place deixis: The encoding of temporal points or spans relative to the location of the speaker Proximal: here Distal: thereQ.从语用学的角度看“这那”的指示用法? 从语用学的角度看“来去”的指示用法? 汉语中哪些成分可以表示地点指示?,Time deixis: The e
10、ncoding of temporal points or spans relative to the time of speaking (the coding time as opposed to the receiving time) Proximal: now Distal: then Proximal: present tenses Distal: past tenses,时间指示中的时间单位概念可以分为历法时间单位（calendric time units）和非历法时间单位（non-calendric time units）。 历法时间单位都是固定的、绝对的时间1987年（1月1日1
11、2月31日）历法时间 我在北京住了一年，从1987年9月1日到1988年9月1日。非历法时间,Discourse deixis: the encoding of reference to portions of the unfolding discourse E.g. That is what I want to know. Social deixis: 语言结构中能反映出语言使用者的身分和相对社会地位的那些词语和语法范畴 tu/vous distinction in French, Chinese counterparts? Ni/nin,社交指示（社会指示）语言中的社交指示信息，根据菲尔默
12、（Fillmore）的意见，可以在下面几个方面得到反映：A 人称标记，如语言中的代词等的应用。B 不同的言语平面（speech levels），如坦率或礼貌的言谈、敬语或谦语等的认别。C 谈话场合，如正式与非正式场合、严肃与随便场合的区别。D 人名、职务和亲属的称谓，如根据说话人、听话人和第三者的关系反映出不同的称谓表达方式。E 作为社交行为的言语表现方式，如问候、道谢等F 配合其他社交行为而使用的言语表现方式。G 说话人运用言语手段向听话人发出的种种指示信息。,称呼语： 一个名叫王薇的姑娘，其男友热烈追求她时称呼她“薇”或“小薇”；后来随着二人感情的变化，他开始称她“王薇”；当男友称她“小王
13、”时，她知道他的感情已经离去。 敬谦语：称自己：愚、仆、臣、妾、鄙人、下官、小生 不才 称别人：君、公、子、卿、阁下、先生称妻子：内人、荆妇、山妻称儿子：小儿、犬子称别人的儿女：令郎、令嗣、令爱、令媛谦：寒舍、敝姓 尊：贵姓、贵体,2. 2 characteristics of deixis,All deictic expressions depend, for their interpretation, on the speaker and the hearer who share the same context. In face to face expression is more ti
14、ed to the speaker/hearers context?,Speaker The speaker expresses his ideas about the world from his personal point of view.,Therefore, deictic expressions have basic distinctions between being “near speaker” and “distant from speaker” or “away from speaker”.,The deictic center Deixis has to be inter
15、preted in terms of the speakers location, or the deictic center which means that the speaker organizes messages from his personal point of view. This can be understood as egocentric,deictic center() the central person the speaker() the central time the time at which speaker produces the utterance.()
16、 the central place the speakers location at utterance time or CT.() the discourse center the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance.() the social center the speakers social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.,The de
17、ictic system: A: the coding time B: in connection with the coding time C: not in connection with the coding time,The deictic projection The speaker speaks as if the central person were the hearer, the central time were the time the hearer received the utterance and the central place were the hearers
18、 location rather than the speakers location.,When it is not a face-to-face conversation, when the speaker and the addressee are not in the same place at the time of speaking, thenthe egocentricity may be violated. It means that sometimes deictic expressions are used in ways that shift the deictic ce
19、nter to other participants in narratives.Lyons called this deictic projection. Fillmore (1975)called it shifts in point of view.,How to realize deitic projection?1. 说话人把指示中心从“自我”转移到他人身上： addressee-centered, or non-addressed participant-centered, or home-basedI am not here now. (notice left to others
20、) (Some one knocks at the door) Im coming. I came over several times to your place, but you were out.,2. 在叙述文中，指示中心从话语生产者(作者本人) 转移到故事中的某个角色身上或者转移到隐藏在幕后虚构的叙述者身上。I was looking at this little puppy in a cage with such a sad look on its face. It was like, “Oh, I am so unhappy here, will you set me free?
21、”,Examples for analysis,Dad will play with you. (talking to his baby)Ive gone to the post office and will be back soon. (the left message on the door),Why does deitic projection appear in language use?Pragmatic empathy; for the empathy effect Empathy : the power of understanding and imaginatively en
22、tering into another persons feelings.,从语用学的角度出发，虽然违背了指示语以说话人为中心的属性，但说话人不以自身为指示中心,而把参照点转移到听人或其他听众身上，在这个过程中说话人以对方为指示照，从对方的角度说话, 从而产生了语用移情。移情在语用学上指交际双方情感相通, 能设想和理解方用意, 涉及说话人如何刻意对听话人吐露心声, 表达意图, 听话人如何设身处地来理解说话人言谈的心态和意思。,Lyons called this phenomenon empathetic deixis (移情指示现象)(P677) For example: First pers
23、on pronouns may be used to refer to the second and third persons(Doctor to Patient) How are we feeling today?(Mum to Dad) Were in a bad mood today. (the kid)2. space deixis : come / go; here / there; this / that,发话人常常通过选择不同的移动动词come, go及指示代词this, that等,自觉、不自觉地违反指示语的自我中心特性,来缩短或拉开自己和受话者之间的心理距离或感情距离,以示
24、友好或冷漠。从礼貌的角度讲,在交谈中发话者选择表示近指的come、this、here比选择表示远指的go、that、there显得友好和亲切Condition for empathetic deixis？,Condition for empathetic deixis: 移情是指示语映射现象这一非常规选择所产生的最基本的语用效果。移情的产生需有两个必要的条件:一是意识到或了解自己的感受, 二是将自己与别人等同起来(王初明，P112),context and deictic projection:,语境是会话含义产生的寓所,要研究指示语映射现象所凸现的语用含义和效果,不能离开其所依附的语境。在不
25、同的语境中, 指示语映射除了产生“移情”的语用效果外, 由于说话人和听话人之间特殊的关系, 还能产生更为复杂的语用效果,如幽默滑稽、羞辱贬斥、嘲讽和诱骗等等。,Why is deixis ego-centric in nature?,Two points: The role of the encoder and the decoder, especially the role of the encoder (encoding from his perspective); The relation established between ego and non-ego in the organi
26、zation of the message at different dimensions.,Deictic and non-deictic usages Examples: 1 You can vacuum while you wash the dishes, and keep your hat on Ill get the groceries. 2 I have been monitoring activities on Earth for some time, and have sent an invasion force disguised as trucks there to con
27、trol widespread corruption. 3 Were supposed to see Dr. Gesundheit today, but Sandy refuses to go there unless she gets a balloon.,Deictic usage: revolving a relation between an object in the world and a linguistic form with no semantically determined reference (the form X is used to refer to A, the
28、reference is determined in the discourse)Non-deictic usage: involving relations between such a form and some other linguistic expression (the form X is used to the same thing “as its antecedent; coreferential relations),同一词语可以既具有指示性的用法，又具有非指示性的用法。指示语的理解依赖于语境，它的所指（referent）存在于语境之中。而指示语作为非指示性词语来用，它们的所
29、指是存在于它们出现的上下文中的，我们将其称为“照应用法（anaphoric）”。 照应用法：指的是一个词语的所指跟上文或下文出现的别的词语的所指是同一对象。,小王学的是日语，他希望有一天能到日本去深造。回指/前指 他是这样对我说的：“”下指/后指语用学研究所关心的是词语的文外照应关系，因为这是一种存在于语言和语境之间的关系，词语的这种用法源出于语境，它们的使用和理解又都有赖于语境。我们把某些词语称为指示语是因为这些词语在很多情况下具有文外照应功能，但这并不等于说这些词语不能具有文内照应功能，只是它们的不同用法体现了词语的不同功能。,4 Ok, this will prove that Eks
30、is irresponsible: when we were on a committee together, he felt asleep during every meeting that he managed to attend. 5 Put that in the wastebasket, please. 6 The dean expelled John because he discovered his secret. 7 Before he got out of bed, James decided that today would be a good day to leave f
31、or Crisfield. 8 How did you enjoy your trip? 9 I cut finger: this one. 10 I am enjoying life here in Nottingham. 11 Sandy wants to go to the park, but doesnt know now to get there.,deictic and non-deictic distinction,Deictic: gestural / symbolicNon-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoric,指示语有两种指示用法，一种是身势用
32、法（gestural usage），一种是象征用法（symbolic usage）。这一对术语是菲尔默（Fillmore）在1971年的一篇论文中首先使用的。（1）身势用法：指示词语通常伴随副语言特征一起使用。 with reference to an audio-visual-tactile and a physical, monitoring of the speech evente.g. This one is genuine, but this one is fake.那辆自行车是我的。把钢琴放这儿，不，不是这儿，是这儿。,（2）象征用法：只需知道言语事件的基本时间空间参数就可以理解。
33、 require the knowledge of the basic spatio-temporal parameters of the speech event, and on occasion participant-role and discourse and social parameters.这座城市真美。 你们要是愿意都可以跟我来。 you can all come with me if you like.,人称指示：指示用法 v.s非指示用法？ 第一、第二人称的用法基本上是指示性的，而第三人称基本上是用于文内照应的。,non-deictic usage anaphoric us
34、age i.e. it is where term picks out as referent the same entity that some prior term in the discourse picked out.e.g. John came in and he sang a song. non-anaphoric usage i.e. context-free expressions which in general refer to people.e.g. You can never predict what would happen next.,Attributive and
35、 referential uses Attributive use: refer to an entity that is known to the speaker only in terms of its descriptive properties as in He wants to marry a woman with lots of money. Referential use: refer to an entity that the speaker actually has in mind as in There is a man waiting for you. Ambiguity: Smiths murderer is insane. (attributive or referential?),课后阅读,奥田宽著，周刚译. 汉语的任意性指示词“这”J.汉语学习，1998，（2）.王志. 篇章代词“它”用法探析J. 世界汉语教学，1998，（3）.,
