1、2013-4-61Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学 what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definition Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language. 1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。 b. The stud
2、y of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. 语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phon
3、ology 音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. 形态学 how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支如对形态学的研究。e. The combination of these words to form
4、 permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes 词素 and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in con
5、text of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics. 社会语言学 i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied lingu
6、istics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive；约定俗成的；惯例的 vs. descriptive if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析描述性的 descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour
7、to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则规定性的 prescriptive 现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 不考虑历史演进的，限于一时的 synchronic vs.diachronic 探求现象变化的，历时的the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a la
8、nguage as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。1.3.3 口头语和书面语 speech and writingSpeech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.In the past, traditional grammarians 文法家，文法学者 tended to
9、over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. 1.3.4 语言和言语 langue and parole (both from French words)瑞士语言学家 F. de 索绪尔langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.语言，某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统；parole refers to
10、the realization of langue in actual use. 言语，在语言实际应用中的具体体现。语言习惯和规则；言语对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用言语不过是一些乱七八糟的语言材料，很难对此作系统的研究；语言学家们的任务是从言语中把语言提取出来，发现指导语言实际应用的规则，并使之成为语言学研究的主题。1.3.5 语言能力和语言运用 competence and performance 美国语言学家-乔姆斯基 （和语言，言语类似的概念）competence, the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language 2013
11、-4-62能力是一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有关其所使用语言规则的知识；performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.运用则指这种知识在语言交际过程中的实际运用。索绪尔对语言的研究采取的是社会学的观点，语言是社会习惯的产物；乔姆斯基则从心理学的角度来审视语言现象，能力是每个说话者个体的心里特征。2 什么是语言？ what is language?2.1 语言的定义 definitions of language Language is a system of arbitrary
12、 vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统。(1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific 显著的性质，特性2.2 语言的甄别性特征 design features 甄别性特征（识别性特征）人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征，其中五种：a. 语言的任意性（武断性）arbitrarinessb. 语言的创造性 productivity
13、c. 语言的双重性 dualityd. 语言的位移性 displacement e. 语言的文化传递性 cultural transmissionChapter 2 Phonology 音系学1 语言的声音媒介 the phonic medium of language 口语和书面语是语言作为交际工具所使用的两大主要媒介和物质手段；口语比书面语更为基本；对于语言学家而言，对声音的研究远远比对书面语的研究重要得多，只关注人类器官发出的声音。2 语音学 phonetics 2.1 什么是语音学 what is phoneticsphonetics is defined as the study o
14、f the phonic medium of language; 对语言声音媒介的研究；主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音, 从三个角度来审视语音现象：(1) 发音语音学 articulatory phonetics （from the speakers point of view）how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds (2) 听觉语音学 auditory phonetics （from the hearers point of view）how the sounds are perceived
15、 察觉，理解 by the hearer (3) 声学语音学 acoustic phonetics It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another 以上三个分支里，建立历史最长，发展最完善的就是发音语音学。声音语言学家发现证实了一些重要的事实。2.2 语言的发音器官 organs of speechthe articulatory
16、 apparatus 器官 of a human being :pharyngeal cavity(the throat); voicing voiceless the oral cavity 腔，洞； (the mouth); the nasal nezl cavity (the nose) 2.3 语音的正字标音法宽式和严式标音法 orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions国际音标 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)人类所发出的语音经常会在特别
17、细微的方面有所不同，国际音标向其使用者提供了一套“变音符号”diacritics 的附加符号，作为字母标音方法的补充，以标示靠字母本身不能解决的那些微妙的语音差别the transcription with letter-symbols only broad transcription the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics narrow transcription2.4 英语语音的分类 classification of English speech sounds 分为元音 vowelsval 和辅
18、音 consonants knsnnt 两大类元音的定义元音和辅音的区别2013-4-632.4.1 英语辅音的分类 classification of English consonants in terms of manner of articulation （按照发音方法）stops 爆破音; fricatives 擦音; affricates 塞擦音; liquids 流音; nasals 鼻音; glides 滑音in terms of place of articulation （按照发音位置）bilabial 双唇音 ; labiodental 唇齿音; dental 齿音; al
19、veolar 齿龈音; palatal 鄂音; velar 软腭音; glottal 喉音 2.4.2 英语的元音分类 classification of English vowelsa. the individual vowels / monophthongs 单元音the position of the tongue in the mouth（按照口中舌头的位置） front; central and backthe openness of the mouth （按照口张开的程度）close vowels 闭元音, semi-close vowels 半闭元音, semi-open vow
20、els 半开元音, and open vowels 开元音the shape of the lips （按照唇齿形状） rounded or not rounded the length of the vowels （按照声音的长度）long vowels ; short vowelsb. diphthongs 双元音3 音位学 phonology funldi 3.1 音位学和语音学 phonology and phonetics语音学研究的具有一般的性质，它所感兴趣的是人类语音中所涉及的：所有语音现象；发音方法，相互之间的区别，分别具有什么样的语音特征，如何进行分类等；音位学所感兴趣的是某
21、一特定的语言中的语音系统，旨在揭示：一种语言中的语音形成组合的方式，以及它们是如何在语言交际活动中被用来传达意义的。3.2 音素、音位和音位变体 phone, phoneme英 funi:m , allophone 英 lfun phone, the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 音素，我们在用一种语言讲话时所使用的声音。音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which
22、distinguish meaning.音位学关心的是能够区别意义的语音现象。音位学中最基本的单位叫音位 phoneme，这是一种具有意义甄别价值的单位，也是一个抽象单位。音位不是一个具体的声音，而是一些语音区别特征的集合。在实际的会话中，音位总是以某个音素的形式得以体现出来的。在不同的语言环境中 , 能够代表同一个音位的不同音素叫做该音位的音位变体 allophone。音位也可以另外定义为，在某一特定的语言中, 语音相似却不相互构成对比的一组声音。一个音位的选择不是随便或偶然的，它是由规则制约的。音位是语言系统中最小的切分成分，还可以进一步分析区别性特征区别性特征是与某种特定语言相联系的。3
23、.3 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair语音上相似的声音可能会有两种相连的方式。如果它们是两个不同的音位，就会构成对比；如果是同一个音位的音位变体话，那么它们在意义上就不构成对比。These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.来自相同音位的音位变体就具有互补分布的特点语言学家面对一种陌生语言的时候，首先找出传达意义的声音是什么，也就是要找出形成那种
24、语言的所特有的声音系统的音位是什么。确定某种语言音位的一个根本方法就是寻找最小对立对。minimal pairse.gpill-bill bill-kill kill-dill dill-gill 可以确定 /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ 是英语中的音位3.4 几条音位规则 some rules in phonology 3.4.1 序列规则 sequential rules 英 skwenl adj. 按次序的3.4.2 同化规则 assimilation rules 3.4.3 省略规则 deletion rule3.5 超切分特征重音，声调，语调 Suprasegment
25、al features stress, tone, intonation音位具有区别意义作用的语音切分部分。sju:prsementl但是在两个或者更多的音位切分序列层面上同样可以找到一些识别性特征。2013-4-64这些发生在切分层面以上的音位特征叫超切分特征。suprasegmental features 3.5.1 stress 3.5.2 tone 3.5.3 intonation Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1 定义 definition Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal st
26、ructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。形态学可以进一步被划分为两个更小的分支：屈折形态学 inflectional morphology 和词汇形态学（派生形态学） lexical or derivational morphology前者研究单词的屈折变化；后者研究构词法2 词素 morpheme 2.1 词素：语言中最小的意义单位 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language正如音位是音系学研究
27、中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。2.2 词素的类型 types of morphemes 2.2.1 自由词素 free morphemes free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used by themselves.bound morphemes, cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.2.
28、2.2. 黏着词素 bound morphemesbound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. root, a root is often seen as a part of word; it can never stand by itself alt
29、hough it bears clear, definite meaning;it must by combined with another root or an affix to form a word.affixes, affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, te
30、nse, degree, and case.derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Such a way of word-formation is called derivation 派生法 and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative 派生词.the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem 词干A stem can
31、be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.according to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致改变原来单词的词类 the part of speech。后缀修改原有的单词的意义，很多情况下会使原有单词的词类 the part of speech 发生变化。2.2.3 形态学原则 morphological rules 3 复合法 com
32、pounding 同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和及其重要的一种构词法。3.1 复合词的类型 types of compound words 3.2 复合词的特征 features of compounds Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. 句法学是语言的一个分支，它研究的是语言的句子结构。句子是根据词的特定排列顺序所构成的，顺序排列恰当的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子，合乎语法的句子是按照一套句法规则而构成的。在
33、本章：a. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.句法学概述：它是一套规则系统，用来指导构成合乎语法的句子。b. examine the composition of sentences in terms of category and structure, as well as the structural constituency and syntactic categories of smaller structural units.再从范畴和结构以及作为更小单位的结构成分和句法类型句子的
34、构成进行分析。c.名词词组和动词之间的语法关系 grammatical relations；2013-4-65d.说话者内在的 internalized 以短语结构规则 phrase structure rules ，X-标杆理论 X-bar theory以及移位规则 movement rules 为核心的组合规则系统。e. conclude by introducing the current principles-and-parameters paradigm in syntactic exploration of Universal Grammar.当今句法研究中的普遍语法原则及参数理论
35、。1 句法是规则系统 syntax as a system of rules a. 句法学由一套抽象的规则组成，这些规则能够使词相互结合构成合乎语法的句子。b. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized knowledge of a language speaker know as linguistic competence.句法规则在所有人类语言中都普遍存在，这些规则包括讲某种语言的人内在的语言知识体系，这种语言知识
36、体系被称作语言能力。c. 任何语言的句法规则都是有限的。2 句子结构 sentence structure 2.1 句子的基本结构 the basic components of a sentence a. A sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.b. The referring expression 被指示对象 is grammatically called subject.2.2 句子的类型 types of sente
37、nces three types: simple sentence; coordinate sentence / compound sentence; complex sentence 2.2.1 简单句clause 子句，简单句中只含有一个子句，有一个主语一个谓语，该句子单独构成句子。finite clause 定式子句，含有一个主语和一个限定动词同时在结构上能够独立存在的句子。2.2.2 并列句2.2.3 复合句embedded clause 从属子句, 被合并的句子或者居于从属地位的句子 the incorporated, or subordinate, clause matrix cl
38、ause 主句, 包纳从属子句的句子。 subordinator 从属连词2.3 句子的线性排列与层次结构 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentenceslinearly structure and hierarchically structure 2.3.1 句子的线性次序排列 the linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 句子的层次结构 the hierarchical structure of a sentence e.g. The student / likes / the new lingu
39、istics professor.2.3.3 句子的结构树形图 tree diagrams of sentence structurebranching nodes 分叉点3 句法类型 syntactic categories Words and phrases are organized according to syntactic categories 句法类型 they belong to.Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (lexical category 词类
40、) or a phrase (phrasal category 词组类) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.3.1 词类 lexical categories 3.2 词组类 phrasal categories 4 语法关系 grammatical relations grammatical relations, Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the
41、 structural and logical functional relations of constituents.subject of 相对于 的主语； direct object of 相对于直接宾语structural subject, structural object 结构主语，结构宾语logical subject, logical object 逻辑主语，逻辑宾语5 组合规则 combinational rules 5.1 短语结构规则 phrase structure rules SNP VP phrase structure rule or rewrite rule 5
42、.2 短语结构规则的循环性 the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules 这些规则由于他们具有的循环特征 recursive properties，可以生成无数个长度无限的句子来。5.3 X-标杆理论 X-bar theoryhead 核心词 XP 必须包含 X，X 分别表示：N，V，A ，P； XPX Det-specifier 指示语, N-the head 核心词, S-the complement 补语” double bar 但标杆 single bar 双标杆X-bar theory2013-4-666 句法位移和位移规则 syntact
43、ic movement and movement rules 短语结构规则解释了句法类型如何构成以及句子是怎样生成的。然而有些句法现象短语结构规则却无法描述。例如，涉及位移的句子。syntactic movement 句法位移，受转换规则的这些规则支配的；transformational rules 转换规则，转换规则的运用改变句子的句法表达方式。6.1 名词词组位移与 WH 位移 NP-movement and WH-movement 句法位移主要有两种：postponing 后移 preposing 前移6.2 其他类型的位移 other types of movement 一般疑问句(g
44、eneral question)引起句法位移：AUX-movement 组动词位移6.3 深层结构与表层结构 D-structure and S-structure 在正式的语言研究中，前移和后移的表现形式通称为：D-structure and S-structure 深层结构，表层结构语法结构规则+词汇深层结构位移规则表层结构6.4 移动 一条普遍规则 Move a general movement rule 如同 X-标杆 规则可以将 各种短语结构规则高度概括起来一样， 句法位移也有一条普遍规则来解释句法成分位移现象：Move or Move Alpha 7 普遍语法理论 toward a
45、 theory of Universal Grammar / UGprinciples-and-parameters theory 原则及参数理论general principles 综合原则7.1 普遍语法原则 general principles of Universal Grammar Case Condition 格条件Adjacency Condition 毗邻条件7.2 普遍语法参数 the parameters of Universal Grammar 同英语类似的语言，毗邻参数值 Adjacency Parameter 设定为+strict adjacency“正绝对毗邻值”
46、，而类似法语的语言，毗邻参数值则设定为-strict adjacency “负绝对毗邻值。Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1 什么是语义学 what is semantics?Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 对语言意义的研究2 语义研究的几种主要理论 some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 命名论 the name theory 只适用于名词，且有一些指的是现实世界中并不存在的事物，还有一些名词不指具体事物，而指抽象概念。2.2 意念论 the c
47、onceptualist view 语言形式与其事物之间的关系不是直接的，而是间接的。语义三角。2.3 语境论 contextualism意义源于语境，存在于语境。语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。2.4 行为主义论 behaviorism 这种理论和语境论比较接近，和人们对心里学的兴趣有关。3 词汇意义 lexical meaning 在讨论语义时，既要考虑词汇意义，又要考虑句子意义。先从词汇意义入手；在讨论词与词的意义关系之前的概念：3.1 意义和所指 sense and reference Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the
48、 linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the 2013-4-67linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. 意义，是词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between t
49、he linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。3.2 主要意义关系 major sense relations3.2.1 同义关系 synonymy synonyms 同义词：方言（dialectal synonyms） ；语体（stylistic synonyms） ；情感意义或评价意义不同的（stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning） ；用于不同搭配的（collocational synonyms） ；语义上有一定差别的（semantically different synonyms）3.2.2 多义关系 polysemypolysemy 多义词从历史上看，一词多义可以看做是词义的发展和变化。3.2.3 同音/同形异议关系 homonymy homoph
