1、Chapter one Introduction 一 、 定 义 1.语 言 学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普 通 语 言 学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语 言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma
2、n communication. 语 言是 人 类 用 来 交 际 的 任 意 性 的 有 声 符 号 体 系 。 4.识 别 特 征 Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语 言 识 别 特 征 是 指 人 类 语 言 区 别 与 其 他 任 何 动 物 的 交 际 体 系 的 限 定 性 特 征 。Arbitrariness 任 意 性 Productivity 多
3、产 性 （ 创 造 性 ） Duality 双 重 性 Displacement 移 位 性 Cultural transmission 文 化 传 递 5.语 言 能 力 Competence （ 抽 象 ） Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语 言 运 用 performance （ 具 体 ） Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语 言 运 用 是
4、所 掌 握 的 规 则 在 语 言 交 际 中 的 具 体 体 现 。 7.历 时 语 言 学 Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共 时 语 言 学 Synchronical linguistics The study of a give
5、n language at a given time. 9.语 言 langue （ 抽 象 ） The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言 语 parole （ 具 体 ） The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规 定 性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and wh
6、at should not say. 12.描 述 性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二 、 知 识 点 1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语 言 不 是 一 种 孤 立 的 现 象 ， 而 是 人 类 在 一 定 的 社 会 环 境 下
7、 进 行 的 一 种 社 会 活 动 。2.几 种 观 点 和 现 象 的 提 出 者 ： 瑞 士 语 言 学 家 F.de Saussure :Langue 和 parole 的区 别 美 国 语 言 学 家 N.Chomsky :in1950 针 对 Saussures langue the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writi
8、ng 口 头 语 与 书 面 语 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of functio
9、n, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语 言 和 言 语 The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract l
10、inguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to di
11、scover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 语 言 能 力 和 语 言 运 用 Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, a
12、nd performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Chapter Two Phonology 一 、 定 义 1.宽 式 音 标 Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄 式 音 标
13、Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清 音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊 音Voicing Sounds produce
14、d while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元 音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅 音Consonants The sounds in the production of which the
15、re is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音 位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音 位变 体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allo
16、phones of that phoneme. 9.音 素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最 小 对 立 对 Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in
17、 the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超 切 分 特 征 Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互 补 分 布 complementary distribution P35
18、 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语 言 的 语 音 媒 介 Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are ofinterest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在 人 类 交 际 中 有 着 一 定 意 义 、 对
19、 语 言 学 研 究 来 说 举 足 轻 重 。 有 限 的 声 音 是 语 音媒 介 。 14.爆 破 音 stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二 、 知 识 点 1.statistics resulting
20、 from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 3.Phonetic 组 成 Articulatory phonetics 发 音 语 音 学longest established, mostly developed Auditor
21、y phonetics 听 觉 语 音 学 Acoustic phonetics 声 学 语 音 学4.articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽 腔 Oral cavity 口 腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻 腔 5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than anyother,
22、 the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front
23、of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.Sequential rules 例 子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a wor
24、d, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w 10.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone 三 、 问 答 题 1.what are t
25、he three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic ident
26、ity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 发 音 语 音 学 描 述 了 我 们 的 发 音 器 官 如 何 发 出 语 音 ， 以 及 这 些 语 音 为 何 有 所 不 同 。听 觉 语 音 学 研 究 语 音 的 物 理 性 质 ， 得 出 了 重 要 结 论 ， 即 语 音 同 一 只 是 理 论 上 的理 想 。 声 学 语 音 学 研 究
27、 语 音 的 物 理 性 质 ， 研 究 语 音 从 说 话 者 到 听 话 者 之 间 的 传播 方 式 。 2.how are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p an
28、dph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 语 音 学 和 音 位 学 的 研 究 中 心 有 何 不 同 ?语 音 学 家 和 音 位 学 家 哪 一个 更 关 心 清 晰 音 的 区 别 ?为 什 么 ? Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish mea
29、ning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos 4.whats a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
30、 Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为 什 么 区 分 最 小 对 立 组 在 一 种 语 言 中 非 常 重 要 ? Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way except in one soun
31、d element that occursin the same position. 除 了 出 现 在 同 一 位 置 的 一 个 语 音 成 分 不 同 外 ,其 他 部 分 都 一 样 的 两 个 语 音 组 合 .Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一 组 具 有 上 述特 征 的 语 音 组 合 . By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its
32、phonemes. 通 过 分 析 一 种 语 言 的 最 小 对 立 对 或 最 小 对 立 组 ,音 位 学 家 能 辨 别 出 它 的 音 位 .6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer di
33、fferences between sounds. 7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 序 列 规 则Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同 化 规 则Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of
34、 a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省 略 规 则 Deletion rule Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented. Chapter Three Morphology 一 、 定 义 1.词 素 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest
35、meaningful unit of language. 2.自 由 词 素 Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏 着 词 素 Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can
36、be used independently. 4.词 根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词 缀 Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲 折 词 缀 inflectional affixes The manifestation of gramma
37、tical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派 生 词 缀 Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词 干 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivationa
38、l affix can be added. a stem can be abound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形 态 学 规 则Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前 缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the
39、 part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后 缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we mustguard against Over-generalizatio
40、n. 二 、 知 识 点 Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes 2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix 4.Compound features: orthographically, a compound can be written
41、 as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component Chapter Four Syntax 一 、 定 义 1.句 子 sente
42、nce A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语 言 运 用 Linguistic competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓 语PredicateThe part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or
43、 a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定 式 子 句Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从 属 子 句 Embedded Clause (E C) In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate
44、 clause is normally called an E C. 6.主 要 子 句 Matrix Clause In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层 次 结 构 Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each struct
45、ural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语 法 关 系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句 法 类 型 Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject orobject. 10.表 层 结 构 S-structu
46、re A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深 层 结 构 D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普 遍 语 法 General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general prin
47、ciples and parameters about nature language. 13.移 动 规 则 Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句 法 移 位 Syntactic movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a newposition. 15.转 换 原 则 Transformati
48、on rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X 标 杆 理 论X-bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X” （ Spe
49、c） X(Compl). 一 种 泛 指 的 、 高 度 抽 象 的 图 示 ， 它 把 所 有 的 词 组 结 构 规 则 概 括 为 一 种 程 式 X” （ Spec） X(Compl) a: X b: X Spec X Spec X X X compl X complement NP the student who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP()有 冠 词 、 名 词 和 子 句 组 成 ， 冠 词 是 指 示语 ， 名 词 是
