1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学 General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communic
2、ation. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征 Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 （创造性） Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递 5.
3、语言能力 Competence （抽象） Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用 performance （具体） Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。7.历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. A d
4、iachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学 Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言 langue （抽象） The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
5、10.言语 parole （具体） The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点 1. Language
6、is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 2.几种观点和现象的提出者： 瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure: Langue 和 parole 的区别 美国语言学家 N.Chomsky: in 1950 针对 Saussures langue its investigations are based on authentic and m
7、ainly spoken language date. 现代语言学是描述性的， 其研究以确实可靠的、 主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 Traditional grammar is prescriptive. It is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。 4. is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language
8、. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 现代语言学主要是共时性的， 重点研究现代语言。 除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究， 否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。 5. Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys priority i
9、n modern linguistics for the following reasons: Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6. How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole simila
10、r to Chomskys? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study. The two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks
11、at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. The distinction between langue and parole? Langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation. Chapter Two Phonology一、定义 1.宽式音标
12、 Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标 Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sou
13、nds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without
14、 obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体 AllophonesDiffer
15、ent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对 Minimal pair When two different forms are ide
16、ntical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征 Suprasegmental features The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental
17、features include stress, intonation and tone. 12.互补分布 complementary distribution Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to lingui
18、stic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。 14.爆破音 stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t
19、d k g 二、知识点 1. Statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 组成 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 longest estab
20、lished, mostly developed Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 4. Articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral cavity 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻腔 5. The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of ar
21、ticulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of k and g, the narrowing of space between t
22、he hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj; the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7. Nasal consonants: m / n / 8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.Sequential rules 例子If three consonants should cluster toge
23、ther at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w 10. English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise
24、-fall tone 三、问答题 1. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important
25、conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。 听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。 声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2. How are the E
26、nglish consonants classified? By place of articulation and by manner of articulation 3. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个
27、更关心清晰音的区别? 为什么? Phonetics-description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology-description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos 4. Whats
28、a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone-a speech sound, a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5. What is a minimal pair and
29、a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组
30、具有上述特征的语音组合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 6. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow
31、transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 7. Explain the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 序列规则 Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则 Assimilation rules T
32、he assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则 Deletion rule Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology 一、定义 1.词素
33、 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素 Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素 Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselve
34、s, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀 Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morph
35、eme. 6.曲折词缀 inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生词缀 Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词干
36、 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9.形态学规则 Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀 PrefixPrefixes modify the
37、 meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en (m)- 11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. In using the morphologic
38、al rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 12. Compound Features: orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. semantically, the meaning of
39、 a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component.Chapter Four Syntax一、定义 1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用 Linguistic competence The system of internalized li
40、nguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语 PredicateThe part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4.定式子句 Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands
41、 structurally alone. 5.从属子句 Embedded Clause (E C) In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句 Matrix Clause In a complex sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层次结构 Hierarchical structure The sentence structur
42、e that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系 Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句法类型 Syntactic category A word or phrase that
43、performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.表层结构 S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构 D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法
44、 General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移动 规则 Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位 Syntactic movement Syntactic movement occurs when a const
45、ituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则 Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 二、知识点 The syntactic rules of any language are finite in n
46、umber, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主
47、要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动 或事件。 句子的分类 Types of sentencesSimple sentence 简单句-It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.coordinate or compound sentence 并列句合成句 -It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunc
48、tion, such as “but”, ”and”. ect. Complex sentence 复合句 It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. 复合句的特点： An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as “that”
49、 An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure 句子结构层次特点Sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together. In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.普遍
