1、Lexicology,词汇学,李庚敏 15820285136,Introduction,Lexicology,A branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. Aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures (形态结构) of words, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.,Relat
2、ion with other disciplines,Morphology 形态学（structure） Semantics 语义学 （meaning） Etymology 词源学 （origin and historical development） stylistics 文体学 （style） Lexicography 词典编纂学 （dictionary）Lexicology embraces all the above.,主要内容,英语词汇学是一门以当代语言学多种理论为指导，全面深入研究英语词汇的专业课程。课程的主要内容包括：词汇学习和研究的基本概念、英语词汇的来源和发展演变、构词方法、
3、词义的变化、词义关系、英语成语等。,Chapter One,A General Survey of English Vocabulary英语词汇概述,Key points,1. word: definition 2. Development of English Vocabulary (history) 3. Classification of English Words,Word,Word 与字？ Definition： the two often quoted definitions from Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家） and a French linguis
4、t, Antoine Meillet（梅耶，法国语言学家）,Bloomfield,“some linguistic forms（语言形态）, which we call bound forms(限定/非自由形态) are never used as sentences.,Bound forms: as part of a larger form e.g. boyish / childish Free forms: occur as sentences e.g. Fire!/ Help!/ Poor John/ John ran away.,A word is a free form which
5、 does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms. In belief, a word is a minimum free form.” (p. 1, para. 2)This definition emphasizes syntax(句法)， but does not touch upon meaning.,Antoine Meillet,“A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable
6、 of a given grammatical use.” (p.2, para.2 ),Main criteria（标准） of a word: Sound, meaning and syntactic function （音、义、形）,Definition,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given syntactic function.（p. 2. para.4） 言语的基本单位和最小自由形态；它是
7、声音和意义的结合体，能发挥一定的句法功能。 Words are either spoken or written.(口头和书面),An Example,The young man left quietly. Sound: Meaning: Syntactic function(句法功能): part of speech(词性) The: article冠词 young: adj. 形容词 Man：n. 名词 left：v. 动词 quietly: adv副词,1. The development of English Vocabulary,英语词汇的发展,Vocabulary,All the
8、words in a language： （p.3） The building materials of a language. Important to have some knowledge of its development and growth.,A: Historical perspective历史的角度,Development of English and its vocabulary: 1. Old English古英语/ Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁撒克逊 （449-1100） England： Celtic（凯尔特语）/ 450AD，invaded by Angles盎格鲁
9、, Saxons撒克逊, Jutes朱特人,Vocabulary： 5000-6000 words，chiefly Anglo-Saxon/ some Old Norse古斯堪的那维亚语 Old Norse words (are, they, their, them, till, call, die, give, take, skin, window, ill, weak) Latin words: Roman contact (bargain, cheap, inch, pound, cup, dish, wall, wine) Christianity基督教: abbot (修道院院长)a
10、ltar圣坛 candle，temple,Middle English（1100-1500）,Transitional过度的： French Influence Norman Conquest in 1066 诺曼底征服 English for the mass and French for the rulers,Vocabulary: Loss of a large part of Old English words Adoption of French words: Law and government: (judge, justice, state) Military: (conquer
11、, victory) Religion: (confess, divine, sermon布道),clothing: (coat, dress, gown, robe) Food: (beef, pork, dinner) Art: (beauty, image) Literature: (chapter, poet, prose) Science: (medicine, remedy, surgeon)The core of the language: Still English,Modern English(1500-present),1. Renaissance: the study o
12、f the classics Latin loan words science and abstract ideas (function, education, exist, scientific) Greek words: literary, technical and scientific words: (drama, comedy, tragedy, physics),French: caf, attach(专员) Spanish： cigar, vanilla， cocoa Italian： concert, piano, solo, piazza. Portuguese葡萄牙语: c
13、aste种姓制度， pagoda 宝塔 German：zinc锌 Dutch：dockRussian： vodka, tsar沙皇,2. Exploration, colonization and trade- borrow from non-European language Australian： kangaroo Arabic： sugar， alcohol Indian： coolie, khaki Hebrew希伯来语: Chinese： yamen Japanese: tycoon African: zebra, gorilla,Summary,The English langua
14、ge has vast debts. 80% words are borrowed. Latin, French, Greek, Scandinavian languages Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Dutch. Other languages of the world.,Result: 1. Vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous 多样化的 （one million words） 2. synonyms and idioms,B: rapid growth of present-day English Voc
15、abulary and Its causes,Neologisms(新词) after World War II Reasons： 1. progress of science and technology科技 2. socio-economic, political and cultural changes 社会经济、政治和文化 3. the influence of other cultures and languages其他文化和语言的影响,Marked progress of science and technology,Examples: 1. Nuclear bombs: chai
16、n reaction连所犯反应, overkill过度杀伤, medium-range ballistic missiles 中程弹道导弹 2. Exploration of Space: astronaut, countdown, spaceman, space shuttle 3. computer science: software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, data base,2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes,A. new social habits and n
17、ew living conditions: hire purchase(租购)， credit card B. Domestic habits: chores杂事, house sitter代为看管房屋的人 , house sitting, supermarket C. Drug addiction药物成瘾: acid head瘾君子 D. Student unrest: be-in(社交集会) love-in谈情说爱的集会gay/ homophile,E. internal political struggle in the US: Sit-in 静坐 swim-in 游泳抗议 teach-
18、in 宣讲会；座谈会（大学校园中就有争议的或重要的问题发表意见进行讨论） F: Womens liberation movement: Ms, Chairperson, chairwoman, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, sexism性别歧视,G. Struggle of the black people: black studies黑人研究 black power黑人权利 H. changes in Education: open classroom, open university, I. New Entertainment: call-in电话交
19、谈节目 J. Sports: skydiving 跳伞运动,3. The influence of other cultures and languages,Discotheque迪斯科舞厅 Mao tai,Summary,The development of science the rapid changes in society The receptive and flexible nature of EnglishResulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary.,2. Classification of English Words,英语单词的分
20、类,Three criteria 三个标准,1. by origin 起源 2. by level of usage 使用的等级 3. by notion 概念功能,By origin: native words and loan words,Native words本族词: Words of Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁-撒克逊 origin or of Old English Loan words外来词(borrowed words): words borrowed from other languages Naturalized or used as they are in the or
21、iginal language. (p. 9),Native words,Most are monosyllabic (单音节的) The great majority of the basic word stock:basic word stock基本词库: foundation of the vocabulary Auxiliary and modal verbs: 情态动词 Numerals数词，pronoun代词，preposition介词，conjunctions连词(p.10, para.2),Fundamental features of the basic word stock
22、,1. national character: 全国性 2. stability 稳定性（relatively） 3. word-forming ability: 构词能力 4. ability to form collocations: 与其他词搭配的能力,Questions,1.Are there more native words or more loan words in English? 2. which are used more frequently in everyday speech and writing? By origin, English words can be c
23、lassified into_.,By level of usage使用的等级,1. Common words常用词汇: （p.11） words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life. The great majority of English words are common words. The core of the common words is the basic word stock. Appropriate in formal and informal writin
24、g and speech.,2. Literary words书面词: chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents or in formal speeches. comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation. Examples: p. 12 Foresee, outline vs. visualize, adumbrate Fatigued, retired vs. tired, w
25、ent to bed,In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. Everyday synonyms: P. 12 for examples:,Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:,Archaic words: 古体词words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They are sometimes employed
26、 in poetry, business letters, etc.),Examples,Abed-in bed; behold-see; belike-probably; natheless-nevertheless; perchance-by chance. Archaic word are marked as “arch” different from obsolete（废弃的） words. Obsolete words are those completely out of current use. Marked “obl, dated”,Poetical words: 诗歌词语 P
27、oetical words are words that are traditionally used only in poetry. Array-outfit; the deep-the sea; stead-horse; morn-morning; Some words are both poetic and archaic: p.13 for examples.,3. Colloquial words口语词: used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can a
28、lso be used in informal writings,Examples,Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (Literary) Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early. (Colloquial) John was dismissed for petty thieving. (Common) John was fired for petty thieving. ( Colloquial ),Slang words: 俚语词 language, words or phrases of a vigor
29、ous, colourful, facetious滑稽的, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.”,Colloquial vs. slang,Some overlap Colloquial: not to be used on formal occasions Slang: not used in informal conversations, unless the speakers
30、 are on intimate terms.,The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty. Buzz- telephone call Knockout-给人留下深刻印象的人；绝代佳人 Nuthouse精神病院 To play hooky逃学,Technical words: 专业术语 words used in various special fields. Every branch of science, every profession
31、 or trade, art, and every sort of sports has its own technical terms.,Summary,Since language is constantly changing, the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.,Question,By level of usage, English vocabulary can be classified into _. A. common words, literary words, colloquial wor
32、ds, slang words and technical words. B. native words and loan words C. function words and content words D. original words and derivational words,By notion意念: function words and content words,Function words: 虚词 often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries助动词,
33、and so forth. They do not have much lexical meaning词汇意义 and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;,They have grammatical meaning. 语法意义. They belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words. The total number of function words is about 154.,Content words: 实词 Words used to name obje
34、cts, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs Content words belong to an open list.,Summary,Function words: small in number, closed list, most frequently used Content words: large in number, open list, low frequency of o
35、ccurrence.,Chapter summary,Word: Historical development of English vocabulary Classification of English words,Chapter II,Morphological structure of English words 英语词汇的形态结构,1. Morphemes,词素/语素,Word,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical an
36、d grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic function,A. Basic information：,1. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. Example: denationalization民营化（word） -de+nation+al+iz+action （five morphemes） A word ma
37、y be analysable into one or more morphemes.,A morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning. Different from a phoneme: 音素-k /k/,u/ju:/ a/ei, i/ai/ A book, I love him.,A morpheme is not identical (同一的) with a syllable (音节), either, since the latter has nothing to d
38、o with meaning. Boy, child-one syllable, one morpheme. lady- two syllables, one morpheme. Crocodile- three syllables, one morpheme.,B. Allomorphs,语素变体/同词素的异形词An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sound. Examples: S in Books/s/, pigs/z/, horses
39、/iz/,Suffix: 后缀 -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation Invent- invention Describe-description Justify-justification, modernize-modernization Expandexpansion, decide-decision,prefix前缀：im-/ir-/il-/in- im-imperfect, impossible, imbalance, immobile ir-irresponsible, irregular il- illogical in inflexible, inexcusabl
40、e,2. Classification of morphemes,词素的分类,A: free and bound,Free Morpheme自由语素: is one that can be uttered 说,讲alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme(限定语素/粘着语素). A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. E.g. man, faith, read, write, red,Bound Morpheme限定语素: cannot
41、 stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. E.g: un-unkind; -ly-happily; re-receive; s-dogs; exboxes; ed-worked.,B. Roots and Affixes,morphemes may be divided into roots词根 (or root morphemes根词素) and affixes词缀 (or affixational morphemes 词缀
42、语素）,Roots词根,A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. E.g. work, workable, worker, worked, workingRoots are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word. Root are either free or bound.,Free roots自由词根,In E
43、nglish, many roots are free morphemes. E.g. boy, moon, walk, black Free roots belong to the basic word-stock基本词库, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock. A free root consists one morpheme.,Bound roots限定词根,They are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on thei
44、r own. Nor can they be used to form new words. P.24 tain- contain, detain, retain ceive- receive, deceive, conceive,Summary,A root, free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Revive Vitamin Vital vivid,Affixes词缀,An affix is a collective term for the type of formative (
45、构词要素) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. P.25,Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional（曲折变化） and derivational （派生）types. P.25,Inflectional Affixes曲折变化词缀,An inflectional affix serves to express such meaning as plurality复数, tense时态, a
46、nd the comparative比较 or superlative degree最高级.,Inflectional affix does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed; They have only their part
47、icular grammatical meaning.,Plural 复数: -s- es- Genitive case属格： Toms Third person singular present tense第三人称单数: works Present participle现在分词: -ing Past tense and past participle: -ed d Comparative: slower Superlative: fastest,Derivational affixes派生词缀,When they are added to another morpheme, they der
48、ived a new word. Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning词汇意义; or more than one meaning. E.g. p. 25,Derivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning情感色彩. mis-/ mal-/ There are also derivational affixes which can be attached to words of differ
49、ent word-classes. v./ n. +able washable/ marriageable,The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes. commonly subdivided into prefixes前缀 and suffixes后缀: Prefixes: affixes before the word are called prefixes. Suffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes.,Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to: Their linguistic origin: Native affixes (are those that existed in English in the OE period or were formed form OE words.) and Foreign affixes (came as a part of loan words from foreign languages.),
