1、英语词汇学基础,什么是“词”（word）？,词是能独立运用的、最小的、有语义的语言单位。就句法功能而言，词可以分为功能词（function word）和实义词（content word）两类。 功能词指没有完整词汇意义但有语法意义或语法功能的词，包括限定词determiner, 代词pronoun，介词preposition, 连接词conjunction,助动词auxiliary verb，感叹词interjection等。 实义词指的是本身有完整词汇意义的词，包括名词noun，动词verb，形容词adjective,副词adverb等。,英语单词的构成方法,语言是随着社会的发展而发展的。词
2、汇的数量是由少增多，词汇的意义由简单变复杂，这是语言发展的共同规律。在语言发展的最初阶段，人们使用的是少量而简单的词汇，表示日常简单的事物和概念，这些词在语言学上叫做原生词（Primitives），也叫基本词汇或词根。英汉语中的原生词大多数是单音节的，英语中如sun, earth, man, head, foot, fish, see, run等，汉语中的如：日、月、水、火、山、田等。 随着社会生活的不断发展，许多新的事物和复杂的概念也不断产生，原来有限的原生词已不够用了，人们便创造出一些新的词来表示新的事物和概念。按照语言一定的规律创造新词的方法，叫构词法或构字法（word-formatio
3、n or word building)。,英汉语的构词法虽然不是一一对应，但是几种主要的构词法还是有其共性。 英语的构词法涉及到英语词的内部形态结构主要有这样5种方法：1）缀合法（affixation)；2）转化法（conversion);3）合成法(composition);4）缩略法（shortening)；5）拼缀法(blending)。 汉语的构词法也同样涉及到汉语词的内部形态结构，主要就是这样5种方法：1）缀合法（affixation);2)转化法（conversion);3)合成法（composition);4)缩略法（shortening);5)重叠法（overlapping)。
4、,缀合/派生,缀合法指的是字根（roots）或单字（words）加字缀，即字首（prefixes）或字尾（suffixes）构成新词的方法。 以拉丁词根duc-或其变体duct-为例 Conduct, introduce, produce, reduce, abduct, deduce, induce, seduce, transduce, conductive, conductivity, conduction, conductometer, conductorial, conductor, conduit, semi-conductor, non-conductor, non-conduc
5、ting,Walter W. Skeat在他的英语词源词典An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language中列出461个印欧原始语词根，另外有人找出14个英语单词，其中出现了14个词根和20个前缀，这14个词根和20个前缀出现在大型词典里10,000多个各式各样的英语单词中：,表示否定的前缀,A-, an- (特别是在元音前），“lacking in”, “lack of”, 与形容词结合，如amoral, asexual, anhydrous, 也见于一些名词，如anarchy, 主要用于学术和科学词汇 Dis-, 表示 “not”, “t
6、he converse of”, 与包括动词的开放类词项结合，如disobey, disloyal, disorder, disuse, disunity, discontent; 表示 “reversing the action”,与动词结合，如disconnect, disinfect, disown,在某些词中含有否定意义，如dishearten, dispossess;表示“lacking”，有限地与名词派生的形容词结合，如disinterested, discolored,In- (il-, im-, ir-),表示 “not”, “the converse of”，与源出法语和拉丁
7、语的形容词结合，不如un-常见，如incomplete, inglorious, imperfect, illiterate, irrational Non- 表示 “not”（通常用连字符）与名词、形容词和开放类的副词结合，如non-smoker, non-perishable, non-trivially Un-表示“not”, “the converse of”, 相当自由地与形容词和分词结合，如unfair, unwise, unforgettable, unassuming, unexpected; 表示 “reversing the action”,与动词结合，如undo, unt
8、ie, unzip, unpack;表示 “depriving of”, “releasing from”, “degrading”, 有限地与名词结合，使其变成动词，如unseat, unhorse, unmask, unman,在这些前缀中，un-的构词能力最强。Non-和un-的区别在于前者常常表示（不可分等级的）两项对比，表示某物不具有某一性质或者特征，如 rather unscientific (*rather non-scientific) Uninterested, disinterested,De- 表示“reversing the action”,可以自由地与动词和由动词派生
9、的名词结合，如decentralize, defrost, desegregate, denationalization; 表示 “depriving of”, 与动词和由动词派生的名词结合，如decapitate, deforestation,表示轻蔑的前缀,Mal- 表示“badly”, “bad”,与动词、分词、形容词和抽象名词结合，如maltreat, malformed, malodorous, malfunction, malnutrition Mis- “wrongly”, “astray”,与动词、分词和抽象名词结合，miscalculate, mishear, misfire
10、, misinform, mislead, misconduct Pseudo- “false”, “imitation”, 与名词和形容词结合，pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-scientific, pseudo-Christianity,表示程度或尺度的前缀,Arch- “supreme”, “most”,与名词结合，主要指人，如archduke, archbishop，通常含有轻蔑意味，如arch-enemy, arch-fascist, arch-hypocrite Co- “jointly”, “on equal footing”, 与名词和动词结合，如co-
11、education, co-heir, co-pilot, cohabit, cooperate, coordinate, coexist Hyper- “extreme” (有时有轻蔑意味，表示“too”)， 与形容词结合，hypersensitive, hypercritical, hyperactive,Mini- “little”, mini-market, mini-skirt, mini-cab Out- “surpassing”,与名词和不及物动词结合，构成及物动词，outnumber, outclass, outdistance, outgrow, outrun, outliv
12、e (在动词及其伴随的小品词名词化时，位置小品词常常作为前缀加在动词前，且重读，如overflow, overseer, outlook, output, outset, underpass, input, throughput) Over- “excessive” (有轻蔑意味）,与动词和形容词结合，如overeat, overestimate, overreact, overplay, oversimplify, overwork, overconfident, overdressed; 在方位上可以表示“from above”，与动词结合，overflow, overshadow,Sur
13、- “over and above” ，与名词结合，且重读，surcharge, surtax, surpass, surplus Ultra- “extreme”, “beyond”, ultrasonic, ultraviolet, ultra-conservative, ultrasound, ultracentrifuge Under- “too little”,与动词和-ed分词结合，undercharge, underestimate, underplay, underprivileged, underprovided, undersized,Sub- “below”, 与形容词结
14、合，subconscious, subnormal; “under”,与形容词、动词和名词结合,subdivide, subcontract, subsection, subway Super- “more than”, “very special”, 与形容词结合，如supernatural, supersensitive, 与名词结合时，前缀重读，如supermarket, superman;表示 “on top”, “hierarchically superior”, super-impose, superstructure,表示方位和态度的前缀,Anti- “against”, ant
15、i-social, anti-clerical, anti-clockwise, anti-war, anti-missile Contra- “opposite”, “contrasting”, contraindicate, contrafactual, contradict Counter- “against”, “in opposition to”, counter-espionage, counterrevolution, countersink, counterattack, countercurrent Pro- 1) “for”, “on the side of”, pro-c
16、ommunist, pro-American, pro-student; 2) “on behalf of”, “deputizing for”, pro-consul, pro-provost,Anti- (反义前缀是pro-)单纯表示反对态度， 而counter-则对前面一个行动表示反对或 作为对应,表示位置的前缀,Fore- “front part of”, “front”, forearm, foreshore, foreground, foreleg, forename Inter- “between”, “among”, international, interlinear, in
17、tercontinental, intertwine, intermarry, interweave Sub- “under” Super- “above” Trans- “across”, “from one place to another”, transatlantic, trans-Siberian, transplant, transship, transport,表示时间和顺序的前缀,Ex- “former”, ex-president, ex-husband Fore- “before” foretell, foreshadow, foreknowledge, foreplay,
18、 foretaste Post- “after”, post-war, post-election, post-modern, postnatal depression Pre- “before”, “in advance”, pre-war, pre-school, pre-marital, prefix Re- “again”, “back” rebuild, reclaim, reuse, recycle, reanalysis, renew,前缀fore-既可以表示时间关系，也可以表示空间关系。大致数来， Fore-接动词，一般表示时间关系，如forewarned is forearm
19、ed. Fore-接名词，表示的可以是时间关系，比如forefather, forethought, In the forefront of the struggle for womens rights,其他常见前缀,Ab- “away” abduct, abrogate, absolve, abscond, abstain Ad (在c, f, l, n, p, r,s,t之前作相应的同化） “at”, “to” adduce, affront, aggrandize, allure, annex, appraise, arrear, assure, attest, accredit Apo
20、- “away” apostasy(变节；脱党；叛教） apology (apo-, log-, -y), apograph (影印本；抄本）,Con-, co-, col- (m, p, b前com-; r前cor-) concede, confuse, consensus, coherent, combine, corrupt Ob- (c, f, p前b作相应同化）“before”, “against”, obstacle, obloquy; 否定，取消 offend, obliterate; 强调 oblivion, oblige, obdurate, oppress Para- 旁，
21、侧，靠近，辅助 parallel, parasite, paralinguistic, paramedic; 错误的,伪 paradox, paramnesia (记忆错误） Syn-, sym- synonym, synthermal, synchronous, symmetry, symphony, sympathy,三个特殊前缀,A-, an- (在元音开始的单词前） 1）表示否定， atypical, anhydrous, acentric; 2) 构成副词（含有in, on, into, from之意）或表语形容词（含义与进行体类似） aside, abreast, astride,
22、 asleep, aglow, aloud 3)不及物动词变成及物动词 await, awake Be- 1)将名词转化为形容词（表示wearing或surrounded by) bewigged, bespectacled, befogged, bedewed, bewildered; 2) 与名词结合构成及物动词 bewitch, bedevil, befriend, belittle, befoul (这类词项多数带有轻蔑或滑稽的意味）；3）加强语气 bedazzle, bestir En- (p,b前em-) 与名词结合构成动词，表示 “to put into”, “to provid
23、e with”， 如enrich, enmesh, empower, endanger, embed, enroll, enlarge, entrain, embody,后缀,形容词后缀 -able, -ible, -uble （动词后） -ac，有特性的，关于的 elegiac（挽歌的；哀悼的）, maniac（躁狂的）, celiac （腹腔的）, cardiac -al, -an autumnal, social, amphibian -ar, -ary, -atory, -ory linear, familiar, insular, elementary, condemnatory,
24、exclamatory, possessory -ful (有时加在名词后构成名词，表示一定的量 handful, spoonful),-esque “性的” “如的” lionesque, gigantesque, picturesque, statuesque, -id stupid, florid, splendid, placid -ile mercantile, infantile, ductile, juvenile, fertile, docile, facile, -ish devilish, piggish, coldish, childish, fattish, woman
25、ish, bookish -ive educative, constructive -less homeless, sleepless -ous “有的”， “多的” courageous, prosperous, mountainous -y windy, hilly, slippery, sleepy, healthy,名词后缀,-acle 构成实物名词及抽象名词 receptacle, manacle, miracle -acy 表示性质、状态、行为等 determinacy, intimacy, privacy, fallacy, infancy -ade 表示行为、状态、物、人或集体
26、 escapade, cannonade, blockade, brigade, crusade -age 表示集合名词：场所，地点；费用；行为或行为的结果以及状态、情况和身份 tonnage, orphanage, espionage, mileage, wreckage, shortage, dotage, bandage -ain 表示人 chieftain, captain, villain -aire 表示人 millionaire, commissionaire,-al 表示行为、状况、事情；人 withdrawal, renewal, aboriginal, rascal, mu
27、ral -ance, -ence 构成抽象名词 compliance, attendance, buoyance, vigilance, confidence, innocence -ant, -ent 表示人或物 participant, accountant, coolant, disinfectant, antecedent, detergent -ar, -ary, -atory, -ory 表示人，场所或物 liar, pedlar, cellar, collar, adversary, glossary, lavatory, observatory, dormitory, dire
28、ctory, inventory,-dom 表示情况，身份、集体、界等 wisdom, serfdom, freedom, martyrdom, sportsdom, filmdom, officialdom -ee 表示人、物、动作的承受者 employee, testee, examinee -ency, -ancy 表示性质、状态、行为 emergency, insolvency, despondency, compliancy, occupancy -er, -or 表示人、物 reader, washer, detector,-et, -ette 表示小 floweret, eagl
29、et, medalet, roomette, essayette, cigarette -ia, -esia, -esis, -iasis 表示疾病 insomnia, anemia, amnesia(健忘), analgesia（无痛觉）, agenesis（发育不全）, emesis（呕吐）, diaphoresis（发汗）, lithiasis（结石）, siriasis (中暑） -ic 表示人，学科 critic, rustic, skeptic（怀疑论者）, heretic（异教徒；异端的）, rhetoric, magic -ics 学科 oceanics, acrobatics
30、, politics -ie 表示人或动物，比较亲切 birdie, piggie, lassie, dearie, shortie, talkie, nudie -ing 表示行为、状态、情况或总称，材料与物品 tailoring, printing, bedding, shirting, carving,-ion, ition, -sion 表示情况、状态、行为、行为的结果和物等 possession, accordion, definition, audition, intervention, collision -on 表示人、物、物质、化学名词 wagon, meson（介子）, g
31、lutton -ism 主义、派 extremism, Islamism, provincialism, baptism, brutalism, androgynism(雌雄同体） -ist 人 -itude 构成抽象名词 amplitude, solitude, gratitude, attitude, altitude, magnitude, plenitude, aptitude, latitude, longitude, promptitude,-kin, -let, -ling, -ule 表示“小” ladykin, pannikin, manikin, napkin, townl
32、et, statelet, duckling, zonule -logy 学，论，法 -ment -ness -nik 迷 filmnik, folknik, citynik, nudnik -th, -ture, -ure, -ty 构成抽象名词 warmth, mixture, signature, armature, departure, specialty, certainty, novelty, cruelty,动词副词后缀,-ate differentiate, liquidate -en shorten, blacken, thicken -fy simplify, classi
33、fy, glorify -ise/-ize advertise, memorize, economize -esce acquiesce, effervesce(冒泡；兴奋）, evanesce, deliquesce(液化；潮解） -fold twofold, threefold, manyfold -ly dramatically, quarterly, sensibly, naturally -s nowadays, upstairs, overseas, indoors -ward, -wards seaward, downward, upwards, inward -ways, -w
34、ise crosswise, clockwise, otherwise, likewise,复合法(compounding),复合法就是把两个词联结在一起，作为一个词来使用。复合词可以是名词、形容词、动词等。所有这些复合词都可以从词类组合的角度进行划分，如n+n, n+v。也可以从彼此之间的意义关系进行划分，如动作+动作者。,Deadline, easy chair, mousemat, bar code, lip service, after-effect, upgrade, leading article, swearword, breakwater, nightfall, show-of
35、f, slip-up, follow-up, upstart, onflow, crybaby, pickpocket, fat-free, interest-free, dog-tired, wet-cold, bitter-sweet, all-round, ocean-going, hen-pecked, travel-worn, lovelorn, honey-mouthed, red-letter, in-your-face, stone-deaf, nickname, law-abiding, mouth-watering,John likes to watch blood-and
36、-thunder stories on television. 约翰喜欢看血腥的电视片。 John has a new made-to-measure suit. 约翰有一套定制的新衣。,转化法 Conversion,转化法是英语中一个比较能产的构词法，几乎任何一个词可以不经过任何词形变化而用作另一类词，使该词产生新的词义。 Quirk（1972）认为，英语具体名词转为动词后生成7种动作意义： 1. “to put in/on”: to bottle, to pocket, to can 2. “to give sth./ to provide with sth.” : to shelter,
37、 to man, to fuel 3. “to deprive of sth.”: to core, to dust, to peel 4. “to perform with”: to brake, to shoulder, to finger 5. “to be/act aswith respect to”: to tutor, to dog, to father 6. “to make/change into”: to group, to wreck, to cash 7. “to send/go by sth.”: to bicycle, to mail, to telegram,He
38、will chair the meeting. The cars are just snaking. She will Haagen-Dazs. He is determined to button the facts down. To Uncle Tom Wed stand on line and wait for hours, smiling and Uncle Tomming every time a doctor or a nurse passed by. To Alice to be in an ideal realm To clinton To hamlet,He eyed me
39、for a moment. Prescription painkillers barely dulled the ache. The legal war would dog him for years. But me no buts.,次要的构词法,缩略（abbreviation/ shortening/ clipping/ acronyms/ blending) omnibusbus helicoptercopter advertisementad spectaclesspecs IOCInternational Olympics Committee PVCpolyvinyl chlorid
40、e DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid NATO Comsatcommunication satellite,词义的构成,客观事物反映在人脑中，产生感觉sensation,知觉perception，表象representation，人脑吧感觉、知觉、表象加以概括和抽象，形成概念concept。人们用语言形式把概念固定下来，成为人们交流思想的符号sign，这就是一定意义的词。 Words have no meaning; people having meaning for them.,莫里斯区分了符号关系的三个方面，指出：符号与其所指称或描写的实体与事件之间的关系是语义关系，符号与
41、符号之间的关系是符号句法关系，符号与符号使用者之间的关系是语用关系。与这三种关系相对应的，就是语言符号的三类意义：指称意义、言内意义和语用意义。,指称意义（referential meaning)或概念意义（ideational meaning)是语言符号和它所描绘叙述的主观世界或客观世界的实体或事件之间的关系。,言内意义（intra-lingual meaning)或语篇意义是句子成分与句子成分之间或句与句之间的关系，它决定着行文的韵律节奏，如何衔接连贯，达到何种修辞效果等。 语用意义（pragmatic meaning)或交际意义是语言符号与其使用者之间的关系，包括表征意义、表达意义、社会
42、意义、祈使意义和联想意义。,英汉词汇搭配对比,语言句子是在语言结构的聚合轴和组合轴上组织起来的。因此词的搭配关系主要指词与词之间的横组合关系，即什么词经常与什么词搭配使用。 词汇搭配范围同单词语义外延有关，外延越宽，搭配范围就越大，反之亦然。,浓（气/液体的稠密；颜色的深度；程度） 浓汤，浓茶，浓咖啡，浓烟，浓云，浓眉，浓妆 Thick soup, strong tea/coffee, thick smoke, thick hair, heavy cloud, heavy eyebrows, heavy make-up 淡（气/液体的不稠密；颜色的浅度；不旺盛） 淡水，淡茶，淡季，淡妆，淡墨
43、Fresh water, weak tea, slack season, light make-up, light ink,汉语中虚伪的假，不真实的假，伪造的假和人造的假等是不分的，所以有： 假牙，假花，假肢，假钞，假画，假酒，假新闻，假证件，假警察，假医生，假唱，假象，假话，假意 False teeth/denture, artificial flower, artificial limbs; counterfeit money, fake pictures, fake credentials, adulterated wine; fake policemen, phoney/quack d
44、octors; lip-synch, false appearance, pseudo-news, lie, hypocrisy,汉语中的“双”可以指任何两个的东西或人，但是英语却不同。 A double room Double standards A double-edged sword Twin peaks Twin towers Twin stars Dual nationality Dual carriageway Two-way,词的搭配大小和词汇义项多少有关。一般来说，义项越多，搭配能力就越强。而义项多少，又取决于该词的引申能力。 Soft soil/ skin/ light/ o
45、utline/ wind/ voice/ heart/ job/ sell/ science/ drug/ soap 松软的土壤/柔嫩的肌肤/柔和的灯光/模糊的轮廓/微风/轻柔的声音/软心肠/轻松的工作/软销售/社会科学/软性毒品/软皂；奉承,汉语的构词方式总体来说是分析性的，即利用现有的语素相加来构成新词。也就是所，对新事物或新概念的命名，采用在表示类属的上义词前加上表示种差或区别特征的词来构成新词。由于上义词的概括性大，这种偏正结构造词方法也影响词与词的搭配。,番茄/牛肉/人参汤 Tomato soup, beef broth, ginseng decoction 个人/公共/环境卫生 P
46、ersonal hygiene, public health, environmental sanitation 球/计算机/戏/影迷 英语中凡是爱好，但并不参加的人是fan: football fan, movie fan 亲自参与的是addict, computer addict, chess addict,英语中也有搭配能力极强的词语，如 Cigarette case香烟盒, glass case眼镜盒；玻璃橱, pen case铅笔盒；笔筒, book case书柜, show case陈列柜, egg case蛋盒, suitcase手提箱, packing case包装箱, pil
47、low case枕套, dressing case化妆盒, knife case刀鞘,宗教不得干预政治。 No one should interfere with politics in the name of religion. 吃大碗 eat with a big bowl 吃食堂 eat in the cafeteria 吃父母 eat from my parents,提高会话水平/领导水平/英语水平/文化水平/道德水平 Improve ones conversational ability Improve the art of leadership Improve English Raise the intellectual/moral level,
