1、An Introduction to Linguistics 语言学概论主讲人李二占 2009年9月1日,On This Course （关于本课程） Textbook Required: A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English Optional: Linguistics: A Course Book Grading：There will have one final exam and a number of homework assignments. Homework 30% Final Exam 70%,Cou
2、rse Schedule Week 1-2 Introduction (1) Week 3-4 Phonology (2) Week 5 Morphology (3) Week 6-7 Syntax (4) Week 8-9 Semantics (5) Week 10-11 Pragmatics (6),Week 12 Language Change (7) Week 13 Language, Society & Culture (8-9) Week 14 Language Acquisition (10) Week 15 Second Language Acquisition (11) We
3、ek 16 Language and Brain (12),Week 17-19 Review Week 20 Final Exam Office Hours 4:00-6:00 Wednesday Lecture 1 Introduction to Linguistics Teaching aims: 通过教学，使学生了解语言学定义、语言学研究对象与研究问题、语言研究中一些重要区分，掌握语言学,研究范围、语言基本定义以及语言的区别性特征，能应用语言和语言学的基本知识来描写、解释或解决一些语言现象或实际问题。 Teaching contents: (to see the Page v) All
4、ocation of time: 4 periods Teaching methods: lecture by teacher, oral questions and class discussion,Teaching procedure: 1 What is language? 1-1 Definitions of language Webster s New World Dictionary (P. 805) 1(a)human speech;(b) the ability to communicate by this means; (c) a system of vocal sounds
5、 and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is,attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; (d) the written representation of such a system 2 (a) any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds; (b) a special set of symbols; lett
6、ers, numerals, rules etc. used for the transmission of information, as in a computer; .,Language is a tool for human communication. (Its function only, and there are other tools for communication. 语言基本工具论) Language is a set of rules. (There are other rule-governed systems. 语言结构系统论) Sapirs definition
7、: 工具论Halls definition: 社会制度论 Chomskys definition: 语言集合论,American anthropologist and linguist, and a leader in American structural linguistics. He was one of the creators of what is now called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. He is arguably the most influential figure in American linguistics, influencing
8、several generations of linguists across several schools of the discipline.,Edward Sapir (1884-1939) was a German-born,Noam Chomsky (1928-), founder of TG(P. 42), a revolution to structuralism.LAD- (P.145)-PPH-Universal GrammarST-EST-REST,语言生物进化论，语言文化形态论，语言行为方式论，语言社会共变论，语言先天能力论，语言行为功能论,语言认知能力论。 四种语言观
9、自足系统观，交际工具观，天赋能力观和文化语言观。代表人物分别是索绪尔、斯大林、乔姆斯基和洪堡特。,A generally accepted definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (1) The element system reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than prov
10、ing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances.,(2)Arbitrary means that between the signifier (sound) and the signified (concept), there is no natural, necessary or intrinsic connection. (3) Vocal means the most important medium of language is speech sound, not the written form. (4) Symbols
11、means something that represents something else, such as a drawing of a heart pierced by an arrow, standing for romantic love.,具体代表抽象，而语言则是抽象代表具体。 (5) Human means human-specific, different from animal communication systems. (6) Communication refers to the function of language.,1-2 Design featuresDesi
12、gn or defining means to give the distinguishing characteristics of or to differentiate. (to describe, to mark out, de+sign)Defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.,Charles Francis Hockett (January 17, 1916 - November 3, 2000) was an American
13、linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralism. He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as distributionalism or taxonomic structuralism.,In his “Note on Structure” he argues that linguistics can be seen as a game and as a science. A ling
14、uist as player has a freedom for experimentation on all the utterances of a language, but no criterion to compare his analysis with other linguists. Late in his career, he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics which he called a theory spawned by a generation of vipers.,Arbitr
15、ariness is synonymous with neither “conventional” nor the speakers free choice. It means the lack of natural, priori and logical relationship between the signifier and the signified. The converse of arbitrariness is non-arbitrariness, including motivation (理据性) and iconicity (象似性). （任意性、理据性和象似性及其相互关
16、系是当今语言研究的热点）,索绪尔首先把任意性看作语言事实和语言属性。他认为语言符号由音响形象和概念组成，即语言符号的语音和语义部分。他把前者叫做能指，后者叫做所指。他在普通语言学教程中解释了任意性的涵义: 能指和所指的联系是任意的，即语言是任意的，例如“姊妹”的观念在英语里同用来做它的能指的sister/sIst/这串声音没有任何内在的联系，它也可以用任何别的声音表示，就是说，为什么用sister而不用其他形式无道理可言。,Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, modern linguistics
17、, semiology.Course in General Linguistics, 1916,Productivity: Also calls creativity or recursiveness. It partly originates from duality. Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistics units to from an infinite set of sentences, most of which we are never before produced or h
18、eard. Language is productive in another sense: its potential to produce endless sentences. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who,Duality: The advantage of duality lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with. F
19、or instance, tens of thousands of words are produced out of a small of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.,Displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.动物之间的沟通无法显示过去或未来,只能表示当前发生的事。譬如动物无法表示“我昨天喝了很多水”， “我明天要爬上那棵树” 只能表示现在哪里有什么东西,像是
20、蜜蜂的舞蹈,可以根据现在花蜜远近的不同而有不同的类型,但是它不会表达我明天要去哪里采花蜜或我昨天采的花蜜在哪里。,Cultural transmission is the process of passing on culturally relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values from person to person or from culture to culture.,语言是用于人类交际的一种任意的、口语的符号系统。人类语言具有双重性，即语音和意义两种系统，而动物只有十分简单的声音系统。 人类语言具有创造性，即语言使用者可以产生
21、和理解无数个句子，而动物只有十分有限的几个或十几个信号。人类语言具有位移性，即可以用语言指称或谈论远离当时当地的东西。动物不能传达昨天、明天或几里之外的消息。,人类语言具有替换性，即在同一语言社团中，一切成员都能产生和理解同样的符号，而对动物而言，雄性能产生的信号雌性不能产生，雌性能理解的信号雄性不能理解。人类语言具有区分性，语音的符号可以分析成一个个的成分，中间有明显的界限。动物的声音信号不能分为单个成分，只能是一个连续体。人类语言具有文化性，人类语言可以用来搪塞、撒谎、讽刺、嘲笑等，动物则不会用声音欺骗自己的同伙。,1. Linguists have proposed various de
22、finitions of language, but the following one is generally accepted: Language is a system of arbitrary v _ symbols used for human communication. 2. Language is p _ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new linguistic signals by its users. This is why they can produce and un
23、derstand an infinitely large number of sentences.,3. During the four definitions of language, which one is different from others? A. “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”. B. “Language is the inst
24、itution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols”. C. “From now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. D. “Language is the system of human communica
25、tion which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units”.,4. The fact that different words can be used to refer to the same object in different languages shows that language is _. A. productive B. double-structured C. culturally transmitted D. arbitrary 5. Design features refer
26、 to the defining properties of human language and some of them are shared by animal communication systems.,考研试题 1. Animal communication systems are genetically transmitted, while human language is _ transmitted. That is, human language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and lea
27、rning, rather than by instinct. (武汉大学),2. What are the major design features of language?（厦门大学 2004） 3. One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary (北师大 2003年试题） 4. Explain the following terms ,g
28、iving examples where necessary. design feature (中山大学 2003),5. Define the following terms. language ,design feature （中国海洋大学 1999） 6. List the six important characteristics of human language （大连外国语学院） 7. 1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? A) Language is a system. B) Langua
29、ge is symbol.,C) Animals also have language. D) Language is arbitrary （南师大） 8. Language is both arbitrary and non-arbitrary. （南师大） 9. The relationship between a speech sound and the meaning it represents is _ . A) natural B) arbitrary C) familiar D) non-arbitrary （南师大）10. Language is culturally tran
30、smitted.,11. _ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics. a. Chomsky b. Saussure c. Bloomfield d. John Lyons （江苏大学） 12. 2 Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design features of human language.（Justify the following claims or statements. ） （江苏大学）,13. Give o
31、ne concept to cover the following statement。 1) Human language can be used to refer to real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future. It can even be used to talk about language itself. （江苏大学） 14. Define the following terms(30%) 1. arbitrariness 5. distinctive features （江苏大学）,15. 名词解释 1. D
32、istinctive feature 6. Recursive rule 论述题 1. What contribution did Saussure make to modern linguistics? （广东商学院 2009） 16. (2) Wherever humans exist, language exists.(3) All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete units to form an infinite set of possible sentences. （对外经贸大学）,用以说明语言与言语区别的例子： 莎士比亚说：弱者，你的名字是女人“Frailty, thy name is woman!“ 。这里的女人是抽象的概念，相当于langue。他深深地爱着这个女人，这里的女人相当于parole “鸡三足”哲学，说鸡有足，这里的足是抽象的，相当于langue，而鸡有二足，这是具体的。鸡三足的错误在于抽象+具体。一个人在和持有“鸡三足”哲学的另外一个人一起吃鸡，这个人抢着把两条鸡腿吃了，然后说，“你吃另外的那条吧”,
