1、,Chapter Four Syntax,The Study of Sentence,,Teaching Objective,Critical Thinking Present and Solve ProblemsUnderstand Macroscopically Study of sentence from different perspectivesUnderstand Microscopically Chomsky: Generative approach,,第四章 句法学,句子是由什么构成的？人们是如何产生和理解句子的？ 句子在语法系统中处于什么样的地位？ 构成句子的成分（如，短语、
2、词）是如何构成的？ 不同的句子类型是如何产生的？以上问题是否可以通过形式分析来描述？是否可以用一些普遍的规则概括句子的结构？ 形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。,,Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.More versions,,Syntax is the study of the
3、rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.,,What is syntax?,What is the relationship between syntax, morphology and phonology?,,The written system of language,Sentence s
4、yntaxClause syntaxPhrase syntaxWord morphology,,Examples,I think that that that that that student wrote on the blackboard was wrong. I met a man( who had a son (whose wife sold cookies (that she had baked in her kitchen (that was fully equipped with electrical appliances (that were new).),,I think (
5、that that that that that student wrote on the blackboard is wrong).,Approaches to the study of sentences,The traditional approach The structural approach The generative approach The functional approach,Sentence,Rule-governed sentence formation,Traditional approach,Word,Structural approach,Generative
6、 approach,Functional approach,,The traditional approach takes a sentence as (1) (句子观) a sequence of words. (2) (研究视角) It studies sentence formation by studying words in terms of categories （范畴）and their interrelationships.,Traditional approach,数、性、格、时、体、态,一致、支配,,Sentence: traditional approach,simple
7、Sentence complex复合句non-simple compound并列句,,The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussures ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.,Structural approach,
8、横组合、纵聚合,A sentence Has a linear structure, hierarchical structure,直接成分 分析法,,Generative approach is mainly referred to transformational-generative grammar (TG 转换生成语法) proposed by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky proposes that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework.,Generative approach,深层结构
9、,表层结构,转换规则,Jane visited Johns brothers wifes mothers fathers cousins friends store. S NP VP (V+ NP),,A functional approach offers an alternative to structuralism (formalism) Language cannot be described without examining its function. Systemic-functional approach starts from clause and extends itsel
10、f to discourse. It involves what language can show (ideational function), what kind of relation can it establish (interpersonal function), and in what way (textual function).,Functional approach,,Functional sentence perspective denotes the analysis of a sentence in respect to its communicative funct
11、ion. The basis of the sentence is known information, called the theme (topic, given), while that which is said about the known information is considered to be the rheme (comment, new).,,Sentence: functional approach,Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-Declarative SentenceImperative,,Analysis of generat
12、ive approach,Chapter contentsThe girl ate an apple.,4.2 how to define each word in the sentence?,4.5 How is the sentence formed?,4.3, 4.4 How to describe the phrases involved?,,A revised outline for Chapter 4,4.2 Word categories （word-formation rules morphology） 4.3 & 4.4 Phrase categories phrase-fo
13、rmation rules (4.3) Phrase elements (4.4) 4.5 & 4.6 Sentence categories Sentence-formation rules (4.6),,4.2 Word Categories（范畴）,Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.,,4.2.1 Word
14、-level (Lexical )categories,Major English lexical categories实义语类 Noun (N) student, lecture, John Verb (V): like, read, go Adjective (Adj): tall, lovely, red Preposition (P) about, over, on,,English minor lexical categories功能语类,Minor English lexical categoriesDeterminer (Det): the, a, this, those Deg
15、ree words: quite, very, more, so Qualifier (Qul): often, always, seldom, almost Auxiliary (Aux): can, will, do, do, be, have Conjunction (Conj): and, or, but Complementizer(C): that, if, for, whether,,The criteria on which categories are determined,(textbook, p. 43-44) Meaning Inflection Distributio
16、n For example, The girl ate an apple.,,Summary of category,词属于不同的类别；传统语法中称为“词性”(part of speech)或“词类”(word class),生成语法中多称为句法类（syntactic category)或语法类（grammatical category),简称语类(category),,词可划分为十个语类：名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、限定词、代词、助动词、标记词和连词。 根据它们是否具有词汇意义、是否属于开放性语类，这些单词语类又可分为两大类：实义语类(content category; contenti
17、ve）和功能语类(function category; functor)。 实义语类在句中主要表示词汇意义，基本都属于开放性语类；功能语类主要表示语法功能，都属于封闭类语类。,,4.3 Phrase categories,4.2.2 Phrase structure 4.3 Phrase structure rule XP rule Coordination rule 4.4 Phrase elements Specifiers Complements Modifiers,,PHRASE is a single element of structure containing more than
18、 one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.,,The phrase categories,The major types of phrases NP VP AP PP,,Phrase structure rule,Please group the following phrases into categories:those people finish assignments the fish on the plate always play games on the shelf very
19、 close to quite near the station (textbook, p.45),,Phrase structure rule,NP (Det) + N +(PP) e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual) + V + (NP) e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg) + A + (PP) very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (D
20、eg) + P + (NP) on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station. (textbook, p.45),,Is there a rule to generalize all the phrase structures?,,To be more abstract, XP rule,a more abstract but simpler formulas: XP (specifier) X (complement),Anything wrong in the following sentences? Which phrase rule
21、does each of the following sentences include? 1. Helen put on her clothes, wearing her hat and went out. 2. My mom bought me a red dress and a new bag and a new phone as present. 3. The boy is moving with care the huge stone. 4. I very much like you.,,Coordination rule,Coordination structures-the st
22、ructures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. E.g., There are , and You may have , or How will XP indicate structures such as: Apples, oranges and bananas,,Coordination rule,,4.4 phrase elements: revised XP rule,How wil
23、l XP rules describe more complex phrase structures such as:My mom bought me a new Therefore, more revisions of the rule below:,,Expanded versions of XP rule,4.4.2 (p.48) How to illustrate phrases with more than one complement? (textbook, p. 47-49) Send me an email Put it on the wall Complement: The
24、XP rule revisedXP (specifier) X (complement*) Complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.,,How to illustrate a sentence-like complement?,,Complementizer + complement clause,4.4.2 How to illustrate a sentence-like complement? E.g.,I was afraid that nobody would bel
25、ieve me.Matrix clause CPCP= Complementizer + complement clause,Complementizer,complement clause,,4.4.3 Modifiers,A very charming lady at the car exhibition (Specifier) (modifier) head (complement),,What is the position of modifiers in the XP rule structures? The expanded XP rule: XP (specifier)(Mod)
26、 X (complement*) (Mod) A modifier can occur either before or after the head. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will occur to the right of the complement as well.E.g., a careful girl, read carefully, read a book carefully open the can with care,,Now, S rules The rules
27、 governing the formation of sentences THE S RULE S NP VP,,4.5 & 4.6,The structure of Sentences How are different sentence patterns produced? What is the difference of the following three sentences? Henry was happy to hear it. Mary is easy to teach. The clothes are easy to wash.剩女产生的原因：一是谁都看不上， 二是谁都看
28、不上在屋顶上发现了小王,,A tree diagram used to label the phrase structure,树形图最为直观，不仅显示出句子的线性结构(linear relationship)，而且清楚地表明其阶层结构（hierarchical structure）,上面讲的这些规则都是通过线性的方式实现的。下面将介绍生成语法中最常用的直接成分分析法(IC analysis)，该方法对短语或句子结构的分析表现为树形图（tree diagram）,,The analysis of sentences can be carried out in ways of IC Analysi
29、s (直接成分分析法) 通常通过bracketing (方括号分析法) 和 tree diagrams (树形图）实现。IC Analysis refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位又称最终成分。）,,Immediate constituents（直接成分）: the two parts that are
30、yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements . Ultimate constituent （最终成分）: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-level.,,这样的图形像一棵倒立的树，故称为树形图(tree diagram)，文献中常简称为树（tree) ，也叫短语标记(phrase marker)。下面介绍关于树形图的一些基本概念.树形图上语类标记
31、所在的点称为节点（node)，连接节点的直线叫树枝（branch)。一个节点向下分成两条或更多条直线叫分杈该节点叫分杈节点（branching node)；只向下延伸出一条直线的节点叫“非分杈节点”，上例中NP,VP,PP是分杈节点,V,P,DET ,N是非分杈节点。,,树形图上节点间的关系常被形象地喻为亲缘关系。分杈节点称为母亲节点(mother node)简称母节；分杈产生的节点是母节的女儿节(daughter node)两个女儿节互为姐妹节（sister nodes)，在上例中，VP向下分杈长出V和NP两个节点， VP是母节， V和NP是VP的两个女儿节，两者又互为姐妹节。反过来，PP又
32、是P和NP的母亲节，P和NP互为姐妹节，是PP的两个女儿。,,more examples of IC analysis,The girl ate the apple (S). the+girl (NP) ate+the +apple (VP),,Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis),(1) bracketing (The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple),,Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis),(2) The girl ate the apple,,(3) Labele
33、d Tree diagram,SNP VPDet N V NPDet NThe girl ate the apple,,4.6 Transformation rules,Introduction of TG grammar Deep structure and surface structure Some transformation rules 4.6.1-4.6.5,,转换生成语法,Chomsky，1957年提出；1965年，Chomsky将其理论发展为标准理论（standard theory, 简称ST）属形式语言学范畴，依靠演绎、形式、符号、公式等与内容相对的手段来分析语言。“转换生成
34、” 是什么意思？ 语法可以生成从未用过的正确语句； 语法描写涉及两种表达式或结构描写之间的 运算和转换。,Chomsky, who has taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1955, developed a theory of transformational grammar that revolutionized the scientific study of language. He first set out his abstract analysis of language in his doctora
35、l dissertation (1955) and Syntactic Structures (1957). Instead of starting with minimal sounds, as the structural linguists had done, Chomsky began with the rudimentary or primitive sentence; from this base he developed his argument that innumerable syntactic combinations can be generated by means o
36、f a complex series of rules.,Noam Chomsky,Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His undergraduate and graduate years were spent at the University of Pennsylvania where he received his PhD in linguistics in 1955.,,转化生成语法,转换生成语法:它产生于20世纪50年代，由形式语法学家乔姆斯基提出。他认为仅仅描写语法形式
37、是不够的，而要探索隐藏在语法行为背后的人类普遍的“语法能力”，这种语言能力通过一套“深层结构”向“表层结构”的转换规则，从而把意义和形式结合起来，把静态描写提高到动态描写。 转换生成语法认为，语言是受规则支配的体系，人具有天生的语言习得机制和语言能力。人类使用语言不是靠机械模仿和记忆，而是不断理解、掌握语言规则、举一反三地创造性地运用语言的过程。,,句子的产生,语法转换部分表层结构语音部分句子的语音表现基础部分深层结构语义部分句子的语义表现 上图是一个转换-生成语法的理论框图。 语法主要包括基础和转换两个部分，基础部分生成深层结构，深层结构通过转换得到表层结构，语义部分属于深层结构，它为深层结
38、构作出语义解释。语音部分属于表层结构并为表层结构作出语音解释。,,The goal of TG grammar is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences. to provide the rules that can be used to generate grammatical sentences; to show how basic sentences can b
39、e transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences.,,Deep Structure and Surface Structure,According to TG, human beings possess two grammars: a phrase grammar which consists of the rules governing idealized sentence formation; - a transformational grammar, which enables us to man
40、ipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types. As a consequence, every sentence has a surface structure and a deep structure.,,Deep structure,The abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction. - reveals the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance and sp
41、ecifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements. A blueprint for the construction of well-formed sentences.,,Surface Structure,The actually produced structure the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive the directly observable actual fo
42、rm of sentences as they are used in communication A sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. Look at the following illustration:,,How is a sentence produced?,Surface Structure(Transformation rules)Deep Structure,,The representations of these two levels dont have t
43、o be different.When transformations are not necessary, the representations of the two levels look the same.,,4.3. 2 Sentence Transformation,We can generate a large number of sentences with only a small number of rules, i.e., “phrase structure” rules.Tree-diagram format can describe the transformatio
44、n process. - a static representation of the structure of the sentence at the bottom of the diagram. - a “dynamic ” format, in the sense that it represents a way of “generating ” not only that one sentence, but a very large number of sentences with similar structures,How does transformation take plac
45、e?,Two processes： Every transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Substitution (the deletion and insertion of different elements in the same place) and permutation (the deletion of an element from one place and its insertion in another) are operations derived from deletion and insertion of constituents.,,How do the following transformations take place?,
