1、管理基础,主讲人：宋联可 博士,管理与组织导论,13,Someone who works with and through other people by coordinating and integrating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. 管理者通过协调和监督其他人的活动来达到组织目标。,1、谁是管理者,14,A more thorough explanation is that management is coordinating work activities so that the
2、y are completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. 管理通过协调和监督他人的活动，有效率和有效果地完成工作。,2、管理是什么,Planning计划 Defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve goals, developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. 定义目标，制定战略以获取目标，以及制定计划和协调活动的过程。 Organizing组织 Arranging work to
3、accomplish organizational goals. 安排工作以实现组织目标。 Leading领导 Working with and through people to accomplish goals. 同别人一起或者通过别人去完成组织目标。 Controlling控制 Monitoring, comparing, and correcting the work. 监控、比较、纠正的过程。,3、管理的职能,Interpersonal roles人际关系角色 Figurehead, leader, liaison 挂名首脑、领导者、联络者。 Informational roles信
4、息传递角色 Monitor, disseminator, spokesperson 临听者、传播者、发言人。 Decisional roles决策制定角色 Disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator 企业家、混乱驾驭者、资源分配者、谈判者。,4、管理者的角色,5、管理者的技能,Technical skills技术技能 Knowledge and proficiency in a specific field 完成特定工作所需的特定领域的知识和技术。 Human skills人际技能 The ability to work well w
5、ith other people 与其他成员和睦相处的能力。 Conceptual skills概念技能 The ability to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations concerning the organization 对抽象、复杂情况进行思考和概念化的技能。,18,6、什么是组织,An Organization Defined组织 A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose. 组织是对人员的一种精心的
6、安排，以实现某些特定的组织目标。 Common Characteristics of Organizations组织的共同特征 Have a distinct purpose (goal)明确的目的 Composed of people由人员组成 Have a deliberate structure有精细的结构,管理的昨天与今天,1、管理的历史背景,Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall)埃及（金字塔）和中国（长城） Venetians (floating warship assembly lines)威尼斯（移动战船装配线） Adam Smith亚当斯
7、密 Published “The Wealth of Nations国富论” in 1776 Advocated the division of labor (job specialization) to increase the productivity of workers主张从劳动分工（工作专业化）中提高工人的生产率。 Industrial Revolution工业革命 Substituted machine power for human labor机械力代替人力,Scientific Management科学管理 General Administrative Theory一般行政管理
8、理论 Quantitative Management定量管理 Organizational Behavior组织行为 Systems Approach系统观 Contingency Approach权变理论,2、主要管理理论,1）Scientific Management科学管理,Fredrick Winslow Taylor费雷德里克W泰罗 The “father” of scientific management科学管理之父 Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)出版了科学管理原理 The theory of scienti
9、fic management: Using scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done用科学的方法来找到“最佳方式” Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment将正确的人安排在适当的工作上，使用正确的工具和设备 Having a standardized method of doing the job用标准的方法来工作 Providing an economic incentive to the wo
10、rker用刺激性的工资金来激励工人,Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 吉尔布雷思夫妇 Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion通过减少多余的行动来提高工人的工作效率 Developed the microchronometerto time worker motions and optimize performance.发明测微计时表记时工人动作以最大化工作绩效。,Henri Fayol法约尔 Believed that the practice of m
11、anagement was distinct from other organizational functions 相信管理与其它组织功能截然不同 Developed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational situations发现普遍适用于所有组织的14条管理原则 14条管理原则，即分工、权力、纪律、命令一致、指挥统一、公益高于私利、报酬、集权或分权、层级制、秩序、公正、安全、主动、集体精神。,2）General Administrative Theorists 一般行政管理理论,Max We
12、ber马克斯韦伯 Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureaucracy)理想的组织类型（官僚行政组织） Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism.强调合理性、可预测性、非个人性、技术能力、权威性。 提出了理想的行政管理组织理论，也就是“官僚体制”。所谓“官僚体制”是指建立于法理型控制基础上的一种现代社会所特有的、具有专业化功能以及
13、固定规章制度、设科分层的组织管理形式，它是一种理性地设计出来，以协调众多个体活动，从而有效地完成大规模管理工作，以实现组织目标为功能的合理等级组织。 行政组织理论具有以下特征：（1）劳动分工。（2）权威等级。（3）正式的甄选。（4）正式的规则和法规（5）服从制度规定（6）管理者与所有者分离。,3）Quantitative Approach to Management 管理的定量方法,Quantitative Approach定量方法 Also called operations research or management science（运筹学或管理科学） 管理科学学派，主张管理过程中采用科
14、学方法和数量方法解决问题，侧重分析和说明管理中科学、理性的成分和可数量化的侧面。 Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods developed to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problems从第二次世界大战期间用于解决军事问题的数学和统计方法基础上发展起来的。 Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying: Statistics, optimization models, informat
15、ion models, and computer simulations统计学、最优化模型、信息模型和计算机模拟。,4）Understanding Organizational Behavior 理解组织的行为,Organizational Behavior (OB)组织行为 The study of the actions of people at work研究工作中人的行为 people are the most important asset of an organization人是组织中最重要的资产 Early OB Advocates早期贡献 Robert Owen罗拍特欧文 Hug
16、o Munsterberg雨果芒斯特伯格 Mary Parker Follett玛丽福莱特 Chester Barnard切斯特巴纳德,The Hawthorne Studies霍桑研究,A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.从1927年到1932年在西方电气公司进行了一系列的生产率实验。 Experimental findings实验发现 Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse work
17、ing conditions.生产率在不利的工作条件下出乎意料地提高 The effect of incentive plans was less than expected.激励计划的作用小于预期。 Research conclusion研究结论 Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.社会规范、小组标准和态度对员工的产出和行为的影响比金钱因素更大 工人是社会人 企业中存
18、在着“非正式组织” 新型的领导能力在于提高工人的满足程度,5）The Systems Approach系统观点,System Defined系统定义 A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.系统是一组相互关联和相互依赖的组成部分，它们共同组成一个统一的整体。 Basic Types of Systems系统集成类型 Closed systems封闭系统 Are not influenced by and do not interact wi
19、th their environment不与所处的环境相互作用，不受环境的影响 (all system input and output is internal) Open systems开放系统 Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs and transforming them into outputs that are distributed into their environments动态地与它所处的环境发生相互作用,6）The Contingency Approach权变理论,Also someti
20、mes called the situational approach.情境方式 There is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to manage organizations.不存在简单的和普遍适用的管理原则 Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing.组
21、织不同，面临的情境不同，需要不同的管理方式 权变理论认为，在企业管理中要根据企业所处的内外条件随机应变，没有什么一成不变、普遍适用的“最好的”管理理论和方法。 强调在管理中要根据组织所处的内外部条件随机应变，针对不同的具体条件寻求不同的最合适的管理模式、方案或方法。,组织文化与环境,1、管理者：万能的还是象征的？,Omnipotent View of Management管理万能论 Managers are directly responsible for an organizations success or failure. 管理者对组织的成败负有直接责任。 The quality of
22、the organization is determined by the quality of its managers. 管理者的素质决定了组织的素质。,Symbolic View of Management管理象征论 Much of an organizations success or failure is due to external forces outside of managers control. 组织成败在很大程度上归因于管理者无法控制的外部力量。 The ability of managers to affect outcomes is influenced and c
23、onstrained by external factors. 管理者影响结果的能力受外部因素的制约和约束。 The economy, customers, governmental policies, competitors, industry conditions, technology, and the actions of previous managers 经济、顾客、政府政策、竞争者行动、行业环境、技术、前任管理者的决策。 Managers symbolize control and influence through their action 管理者通过他们的行动来发挥象征的控制
24、与影响。,2、组织文化,Organizational Culture组织文化 企业文化是在一定社会大文化环境之下，经过核心人物长期倡导和全体成员共同认同，在实践中所获得的物质与精神的生产能力和创造的物质与精神财富的总和（宋联可，2007）。 Implications:含义 Culture is a perception.文化是一种感知。 Culture is shared.文化是共有的。,325,文化内层,文化中层,文化外层,3、外部环境,External Environment外部环境 The forces and institutions outside the organization
25、that potentially can affect the organizations performance. 能够对组织绩效造成潜在影响的外部力量和机构。 Components of the External Environment外部环境组成 Specific environment: external forces that have a direct and immediate impact on the organization. 具体环境：直接影响和紧密影响组织的外部力量 General environment: broad economic, socio-cultural,
26、 political/legal, demographic, technological, and global conditions that may affect the organization. 一般影响：可能影响组织的广泛的经济条件、政治/法律条件、社会文化条件、人口条件、技术条件和全球条件。,制定决策,628,1、决策制定过程,Decision决策 Making a choice from two or more alternatives. 在两个或更多的方案中作出选择 The Decision-Making Process决策制定过程 Identifying a problem
27、and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria. 识别决策问题,确定决定标准,为每个决策标准分配权重. Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem. 开发,分析,选择备选方案,方案要能解决问题. Implementing the selected alternative. 实施备选方案. Evaluating the decisions effectiveness. 评估决策结果.,步骤1:识别决策问题,
28、Problem问题 A discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs. 现状与希望状态之间的差异. Characteristics of Problems问题的特征: A problem becomes a problem when a manager becomes aware of it. 当管理着意识到问题,问题变成了问题. There is pressure to solve the problem. 迫于压力要解决此问题. The manager must have the authority, inform
29、ation, or resources needed to solve the problem. 管理者要拥有解决问题所需的权利,信息或资源.,步骤2:确认决策标准,Decision criteria are factors that are important (relevant) to resolving the problem. 决策标准是解决问题的重要因素. Costs that will be incurred (investments required) 将引起的成本(投资需要) Risks likely to be encountered (chance of failure)
30、将遭遇的风险(失败机会) Outcomes that are desired (growth of the firm) 希望的结果(公司成长),步骤3:为决策标准分配权重,Decision criteria are not of equal importance 决策标准并非同等重要。 Assigning a weight to each item places the items in the correct priority order of their importance in the decision making process. 为每一项标准分配权重,以正确地规定它们的优先次序.
31、,步骤4:开发备择方案,Identifying viable alternatives 确认可行的备择方案 Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that can resolve the problem. 所列的备择方案要能解决问题.,步骤5:分析备择方案,Appraising each alternatives strengths and weaknesses 评估每一个备择方案的优点和缺点. An alternatives appraisal is based on its ability to resolve the issues id
32、entified in steps 2 and 3. 对备择方案的评估是基于第二步和第三步定义的解决问题的能力.,步骤6:选择备择方案,Choosing the best alternative 选择最佳备择方案 The alternative with the highest total weight is chosen. 选择总分得分最高的备择方案,步骤7:实施备择方案,Putting the chosen alternative into action. 实施选择的备选方案 Conveying the decision to and gaining commitment from tho
33、se who will carry out the decision. 把决策传达给有关人员,并获得他们对决策的承诺.,步骤8:评估决策结果,The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes. 根据决策结果来评价决策 How effectively was the problem resolved by outcomes resulting from the chosen alternatives? 通过备择方案问题是否有效地得到解决? If the problem was not resolved, what went wrong
34、? 如果问题仍然存在,将会发生什么事情?,2、理性与有限理性,Rationality理性 Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices with specified constraints. 管理者制定的决策是前后一致的,是追求特定条件下的价值最大化. Assumptions are that decision makers:决策制定者的假设: Are perfectly rational, fully objective, and logical.完全理性,完全客观,符合逻辑. Have carefully defined the pr
35、oblem and identified all viable alternatives.问题是清晰明确的,识别了所有可靠方案. Have a clear and specific goal有一个清楚明确的目标 Will select the alternative that maximizes outcomes in the organizations interests rather than in their personal interests.选择最大化组织利益的方案,而不是最大化个人利益的方案,Bounded Rationality有限理性 Managers make decisi
36、ons rationally, but are limited (bounded) by their ability to process information. 管理者理性地做出决策,但受限于自身处理信息的能力. Assumptions are that decision makers: 决策者的假设: Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternatives 不能找到和有能力分析出所有备择方案. Will satisficechoose the first alternative encountered that satisfacto
37、rily solves the problemrather than maximize the outcome of their decision by considering all alternatives and choosing the best. 满意选择第一个能满意解决问题的方案而不是通过考虑所有的方案,选最佳的方案来最大化决策的结果,Escalation of Commitment承诺升级 Increasing or continuing a commitment to previous decision despite mounting evidence that the de
38、cision may have been wrong. 在过去决策的基础上不断增加承诺,尽管有证据表明这个决策是错误的. The Role of Intuition直觉的角色 Intuitive decision making直觉决策 Making decisions on the basis of experience, feelings, and accumulated judgment. 基于决策者的经验,感觉,积累的判断.,3、结构良好问题与程序化决策,Structured Problems结构良好问题 Involve goals that clear,目标清晰 Are familia
39、r (have occurred before),问题熟悉(以前出现过) Are easily and completely definedinformation about the problem is available and complete,容易并完全识别关于问题的信息是有用的并完全的. Programmed Decision程序化决策 A repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach. 一种重复性决策,运用常规方法就能处理所面临的问题.,4、结构不良问题与非程序化决策,Unstructured Probl
40、ems结构不良问题 Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete. 问题是新颖的,不经常发生的;信息是模糊的,不完整的. Problems that will require custom-made solutions. 问题需要定制解决方案. Nonprogrammed Decisions非程序化决策 Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring. 决策具有唯一性和不可重复性. Decisions that generate u
41、nique responses. 决策产生唯一的反应.,5、决策的条件,Certainty确定性 A ideal situation in which a manager can make an accurate decision because the outcome of every alternative choice is known. 管理者可以制定出精确的决策,因为每一种方案的结果是已知的. Risk风险性 A situation in which the manager is able to estimate the likelihood (probability) of out
42、comes that result from the choice of particular alternatives. 管理者能够估计出每一种备择方案的可能性.,Uncertainty不确定性 Limited or information prevents estimation of outcome probabilities for alternatives associated with the problem and may force managers to rely on intuition, hunches, and “gut feelings”. 限制或信息阻止评估备择方案解
43、决问题的结果的可能性,管理者不能不靠直觉,预感,凭感觉来决策.,Maximax(最大收益值规则): the optimistic managers choice to maximize the maximum payoff乐观的管理者的选择,最大化最大可能的收益 Maximin (最小最大收益值规则): the pessimistic managers choice to maximize the minimum payoff悲观的管理者的选择,最大化最小可能的收益. Minimax (最小最大后悔值规则): the managers choice to minimize his maximu
44、m regret.管理者的选择是,最小化其最大的”遗憾”.,6、决策风格,Ways of thinking思维方式 Rational, orderly, and consistent理性的,顺序的,一致的 Intuitive, creative, and unique直觉的,创新的,唯一的 Tolerance for ambiguity模糊承受力 Low tolerance: require consistency and order 低承受力:需要一致和顺序 High tolerance: multiple thoughts simultaneously 高承受力:同时处理许多不同的想法,D
45、irective命令型风格 Use minimal information and consider few alternatives. 较低的模糊承受力,考虑少量的备择方案. Analytic分析型风格 Make careful decisions in unique situations. 在独特的情形下,认真思考决策. Conceptual概念型风格 Maintain a broad outlook and consider many alternatives in making long-term decisions. 维持广泛的看法,关注长期效果来思考较多的备选方案. Behavio
46、ral行为型风格 Avoid conflict by working well with others and being receptive to suggestions. 与他人相片避免冲突,愿意接受他人的建议.,7、决策制定的偏见和错误,Heuristics启发法 Using “rules of thumb(无科学根据)” to simplify decision making.运用无科学根据的方法来简单决策. Overconfidence Bias自负偏见 Holding unrealistically positive views of ones self and ones perf
47、ormance.对自己及其表现持盲目乐观态度. Immediate Gratification Bias即时满足偏见 Choosing alternatives that offer immediate rewards and that to avoid immediate costs.选择方案时想立即获得收益和避免成本.,Anchoring Effect锚定效应 Fixating on initial information and ignoring subsequent information.把注意力放在作为起点的原始信息上,不能充分接受新信息. Selective Perception
48、选择性认知偏见 Selecting organizing and interpreting events based on the decision makers biased perceptions.基于偏见而有选择性的组织和说明事物. Confirmation Bias证实偏见 Seeking out information that reaffirms past choices and discounting contradictory information.搜寻出再次肯定过去选择的信息,与过去选择相左的信息则不考虑.,Framing Bias框架偏见 Selecting and hi
49、ghlighting certain aspects of a situation while ignoring other aspects.有重点地选择事物的某些方面,而摒弃别的方面. Availability Bias有效性偏见 Losing decision-making objectivity by focusing on the most recent events.关注最近发生的事而不能客观决策. Representation Bias典型性偏见 Drawing analogies and seeing identical situations when none exist.根据
50、某一事件与其它事件的相似程度来评价事件. Randomness Bias随机性偏见 Creating unfounded meaning out of random events. 从随机事件中归纳出某个结论,Sunk Costs Errors沉没成本错误 Forgetting that current actions cannot influence past events and relate only to future consequences.忽略了现在的决策不能纠正过去而仅与未来结果相关. Self-Serving Bias自利性偏见 Taking quick credit for successes and blaming outside factors for failures.居功自傲,将失败归咎于外部因素. Hindsight Bias后见偏见 Mistakenly believing that an event could have been predicted once the actual outcome is known (after-the-fact).得知结果后,决策制定者错误地认为他准确地预见了这个结果.,
