1、Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学,What is cognitive linguistics?,1.Definition of Cognitive Linguistics 2.Construal（识解） and Construal Operations（识解操作） 3.Categorization （范畴化） 4.Image Schemas （意象图式） 5.Metaphor （隐喻） 6.Metonymy （换喻/转喻） 7.Blending theory（整合理论）,1. The definition of cognitive linguistics Cognitive
2、 linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. -Ruiz de Mendoza 1997) Cognitive Linguistics is based on human experience of the world and the way they
3、 perceive and conceptualize the world .认知语言学是基于人类对世界的经验以及他们感知和概念化世界的方式,2.Construal （识解） & Construal Operations （识解操作） Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground seg
4、regation etc.识解，一种在特异性，心理扫描，定向性，优势地位以及图形与背景的分离等多种不同的方式下理解和描绘相同的情景的能力。,Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expre
5、ssions. 识解操作是人类在语言处理过程中概念化的过程。或者说，识解操作是理解语言表达方式所使用的基本心理过程和心理来源。,2.1 Attention （注意力）/ Salience（突显） The operation grouped under SALIENCE have to do with our direction of attention towards something that is salient to us. Ex.1.a He cleaned the window. b He opened the window. 第一个例子将注意力放在窗户的玻璃上。第二个例子更强调窗
6、子的框架。 Ex.2.a I have broken the window. b A stone has broken the window. 第个例子突显了我在事件中的角色，第二个例子突显的是石头的角色.,2.2Judgment（判断） / Comparison（对比） The construal operations of judgment / comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else.判断/对比识解操作与把一物比作另一物的判断相关.它是人类基本的认识能力,也是人类经验的基础
7、.,The figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to our perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is movin
8、g, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constituent the ground.图形-背景关系似乎可以运用于空间研究，背景充当了介词宾语和表征空间关系的介词。它同样也适用于我们感知运动的物体。因为运动的物体是最具凸显性的。因为它是运动的，就构成了图形，而剩余的刺激构成了背景。,Langacker 用射体(trajector)表示运动的图形,用路标(landmark)表示在运动的背景. Ex. The book (图形) is on the table (背景)Batman(图形) was standing on
9、 the roof(背景)We (射体) went across the field(路标)He (射体) is going to London(路标),2.3Perspective(视角)/situatedness (方位) 另一个认知语言学的识解操作就是视角。我们通过所处的位置来观察一个情景。视点取决于两个方面：一方面，它取决于观察者的位置与观察情境的关系。另一方面，它取决于情景的安排与观察者的位置关系。 Ex. My bike is in front of the car.我的自行车在汽车的前面。My bike is behind the car.我的自行车在汽车的后面。 这些识解以我们
10、实际上站在不同的角度去观察自行车和汽车为前提。,3.Categorization （范畴化） Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. 范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验划分成不同的类型。 There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the super-ordinate level, and the subordin
11、ate level.,3.1 Basic level 基本层次范畴 The categories at the basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best. This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects” in the world. 其特征体现在以下四个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）：1 由行为相互作用产生典型范式的最具包
12、容性的层次。2 构成清晰图像的最具包容性的层次。 3 代表部分-整体信息的最具包容性的层次。4 为日常参考所提供的层次。,3.2 Superordinate level 上位层次范畴 Superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level. 其特征体现在以下四个方面(Croft and cruse)： 1
13、 上位范畴没有基本层次范畴好，尽管它的成员可以区别于邻近的范畴，但是范畴内的相似性相对比较低。 2 上位范畴比基本层次范畴的定义特征是少。 3 基本层次范畴的中间层次上位范畴之间有单一的修饰关系。 4 从语言学的角度说，上位范畴的名词大多是物质名词，而基本层次范畴的名词是可数名词。,3.3Subordinate level附属层次范畴 At this level we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories. Often the names for SUBORDINATE LEVEL
14、categories are morphologically complex. They are typically composite forms. One such example is that of compound nouns. 其特征体现在以下三个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）：1 附属范畴比基本范畴层次尽管它们的低，尽管它们的成员之间有很高的相似性，但于临近的范畴成员的区别性却很低。2 它们的信息性相对比它们的中间层次上位范畴少。3 它们是多词素性的，而最普遍的格式是修饰中心语结构。,4.Image schemas 意象图式 Mark Johnson (1987) defines an
15、 image schemas a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. 约翰逊把意象图式定义为通过感知的相互作用和运动程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的循环出现的动态模式。,Image schematic structures have two characteristics: 1) they are pre-conceptual schematic structures
16、 emerging from our bodily experience;2) they are constantly operating in our perceptual interaction, bodily movement through space, and physical manipulation of objects.,There are nine types of schemas: 1.A center-periphery schemas(中心-边缘图示) It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and d
17、egrees of distance from the core. For example: the structure of an apple, an individuals perceptual sphere, an individuals social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others at the outside. 2.A containment schemas（容器图示） It is an image schema that involves a physical or metaphorical bounda
18、ry, enclosed area or volume, or excluded area or volume. A containment schema has additional optional properties, such as transitivity of enclosure, objects inside or outside the boundary, protection of an enclosed object, the restriction of force inside the enclosure, and the relatively fixed posit
19、ion of an enclosed object.,3.A cycle schema (循环图示)It involves repetitious events and event series.Its structure includes the following:a starting point,a progression through successive events without backtracking,a return to the initial state. For examples days,weeks. 4.A force schemas （力道图示） It inv
20、olves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: a source and target of the force, a direction and intensity of the force, a path of motion of the source and target, a sequence of causation. Here are some kinds of force schemas: an attraction schema, a balance s
21、chema, a blockage schema, a compulsion schema, a counterforce schema, a diversion schema, an enablement schema, a restraint removal schema.,5.A link schema (连接图示) It consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them. Here are some examples of link sc
22、hema: a child holding her mothers hand; someone plugging a lamp into the wall, kinship ties. 6.A part-whole schema（部分-整体图示） It involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. Examples are: the body and its parts, the family and the caste structure of
23、 India.,7. A path schema (路径图示) It involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. This can be exemplified by paths and trajectories. 8. A scale schema（标量图示） It involves an increase or decrease of physical
24、 or metaphorical amount, and consists of any of the following: a closed-end or open-ended progression of amount, a position in the progression of amount, one or more norms of amount, a calibration of amount. Here are some examples: physical amounts.,9 .A verticality schema（垂直图示） It involves “up” and
25、 “down” relations. Here are some examples of verticality schema: standing upright, climbing stairs, viewing a flagpole, watching water rise in a tub. According to Johnson, some image schema also represent spatial orientations and relations: UP-DOWN, FRONT-BACK, PART-WHOLE, CENTER-PERIPHERY, and so o
26、n.,4.Metaphor 隐喻,隐喻就是把一个领域的概念投射到另一个领域，或者说从一个认知域（来源域）投射到另一个认知域（目标域）。 最常见的隐喻是用具体、常见的概念隐喻比较抽象的概念。时间往往依赖于事物的运动模式通过隐喻得以表现出来，语言中往往借助于事物、运动、方位等观念以隐喻的方式理解和表达时间。 不同概念、范畴之间的相似性，是隐喻的基础条件。人们常用以容器隐喻概念、内容、思想、观点等抽象范畴。如“手”的隐喻非常丰富，水手，新手，生手，枪手“眼”的隐喻开眼，顺眼，眼力，眼界,(1)Ontological Metaphor (实体隐喻 ) 人们将抽象和模糊的思想，感情，心理活动，事件，状态
27、等无形的概念看作是具体的，有形的实体，因而可以对其进行谈论，量化，识别其特征及原因。 My fear of insects is driving my wife crazy. The pressure of his responsibilities caused his breakdown.,(2)Structural Metaphor （结构隐喻) 结构隐喻指以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念，使两种概念相叠加，将谈论一种概念的各方面的词语用于谈论另一种概念，于是就产生了一词多用现象。 “spend” money- time, energy, efforts, force, fuel etc.
28、 Time is money. Ideas are objects. Argument is war .,(3)Orientational Metaphor(方位隐喻） 空间方位的概念： 上下 ， 前后， 深浅，中心-边缘 等 。 More is up; less is down The number of books printed each year keeps going up. Source model: 上下域 target model: 数量,5.metonymy转喻,转喻：英语为 metonymy, 源于希腊语meta-(变化)和onoma-（命名），是最基本的连接过程。在转喻的
29、过程中一个或多个词义之间的语义联系是建立在相依性关系基础上的，如整体和部分、内容和形式的相依性。因此，转喻是发生在同一认知域中的映射。,(1) Whole ICM and its parts(整体与部分间的转喻）,(i) thing-and-part ICM America for “United States”（整个事物替代事物的部分：美国替代“美利坚合众国”） England for “Great Britain”（事物的部分替代事物的整体：英格兰替代“大英帝国”） (ii) Scale ICM Henry is speeding again for “Henry is going too
30、 fast.”（整体标量替代标量上限：亨利又在加速了替代“亨利的速度更快了。”） How old are you? for “what is your age?”（标量上限替代整体标量：你多大了？替代“你的年龄是多少？”）,(iii) Constitution ICM I smell skunk.（物体替代构成物体的材料：我闻到一股臭鼬味。）wood for “forest”（材料成分替代物体：木柴替代“森林”） (iv) Event ICM Bill smoked marijuana.（整个事件替代子事件：比尔抽大麻。） Mary speaks Spanish.（子事件替代整个事件：玛丽说西
31、班牙语。）,(v) Category-and-Member ICMthe pill for “birth control pill”（范畴替代范畴成员：药片替代“避孕药片”）aspirin for “any pain-relieving tablet”（范畴成员替代范畴：阿司匹林替代“镇痛药”） (vi) Category-and-Property ICMjerk for “stupidity”（范畴替代属性：傻瓜替代“愚蠢”）blacks for “black people”（属性替代范畴：黑色替代“黑人”） (vii) Reduction ICMcrude for “crude oil”（
32、形式的部分替代整个形势：crude 替代“原油”）,(2)Parts of an ICM(部分与部分的转喻）,（i) Action ICMto author a new book; to butcher the cow（行为者替代行为：写一本新书；杀死这头牛）writer, driver（行为替代行为者：作者，司机） 其它例子如工具与行为，物体与行为，结果与行为的相互替代；方式替代行为，手段替代行为，时间替代行为，目的替代行动，工具替代执行人等。 （ii）Perception ICM There goes my knee for “There goes the pain in my knee”
33、 （知觉到的事物替代知觉：我的膝盖又来了替代“我的膝盖又痛了”） sight for “thing seen”（知觉替代知觉到的事物：视觉替代“看到的事物”）,(iii) Causation ICMhealthy complexion for “the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion” （原因替代结果：健康的肤色替代“良好的身体状况产生健康肤色的结果”）slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road
34、”(结果替代原因：车辆行驶缓慢的道路替代“行驶缓慢的交通由道路状况不良造成”) (iv) Production ICM Ive got a Ford for “car”（生产替代产品：我有一辆福特替代“福特车”）,(v) Control ICM Nixon bombed Hanoi.（控制者替代被控制者：尼克松轰炸了河内。） The Mercedes has arrived.（被控制者替代控制者：奔驰到了。）(vi) Possession ICM Thats me for “my bus”; I am parked there for “my car”.（领属者替代被领属：那是我的替代“我乘坐
35、的公共汽车”;我停在这里替代“我的车”） He married money for “person with money”.（被领属替代领属者：他娶了金钱替代“有钱的人”）,(vii) Containment ICM The bottle is sour for “milk”（容器代表其内容：这瓶是酸的替代瓶里的“奶”） The milk tipped over for “the milk container tipped over”（内容代表容器：牛奶翻倒了替代“牛奶瓶翻倒了”）(viii) Location ICM The whole town slowed up for “the peo
36、ple”（地点替代居民：全城出动“城里的居民”） The French hosted the World Cup Soccer Games for “France”（居民替代地点：法国人当了世界杯足球赛的东道主替代“法国”） 其它还有地点与机构，地点与事件的相互替代,(ix) Sign and Reference ICMa self-contradictory utterance（单词替代单词表达的概念：自相矛盾的话语）(x) Modification ICM Do you still love me?- Yes, I do.（替代形式替代原始形式：你还爱我吗？爱。）,6.Blending T
37、heory,随着心理空间理论的发展， Fauconnier 和Mark Turner（1994，1998）发现了反映许多语言现象中的一条重要的心理空间的认知操作：概念整合(conceptual blending )。概念整合包括建立相互映现的心理空间网络，并以各种方式整合成新的空间。,基本的概念整合网络包含四个心理空间。其中两个称为输入空间(input spaces), 并在其之间建立跨空间的映现。跨空间映现创造或反映了两个输入空间所共享的更抽象的空间，即类属空间(generic space)。第四个空间是整合空间(blended space)，是从输入空间中进行选择性的映现而来的，它可以各种方式形成两个输入空间所不具备的突生结构(emergent structure)，并可把这一结构映现回网络的其它空间中去。,概念整合是概念隐喻理论的进一步发展，因为前者可解释后者解释不了的现象。Everybody has their horns pulled in. 解释：在牛群活动的输入空间里，牛无法收回其牛角。在金融的输入空间中，投资者没有牛角，但它们能收回其投资。在整合空间中，投资者成为具有可缩回牛角的牛。这一突生结构是无法直接通过来源域和目标域的隐喻映现获得的。,跨空间映射,类属空间,合成空间,层创结构,Thank you !,
