1、PHILOSOPHY of WESTERN CIVILIZATION,II Greek Rationalism Rationalism: The theory that the exercise of reason, rather than the acceptance of empiricism, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides the only valid basis for action or belief and that reason is the prime source of knowledge and of spirit
2、ual truth.唯理论，理性主义认为理性分析，而不是对经验主义，权威或神灵感应是信仰和行动的源泉的理论，还认为理性是知识和精神真理的主要来源,1. The first major Greek philosopher: Thales5Weili:z泰利斯 Greek philosopher who is traditionally considered the first Western philosopher and a founder of geometry and abstract astronomy. He maintained that matter is composed of
3、water. Questions: What was the origin of metaphysics?,2. Anaximander ( 611- 547 B.C.) Greek astronomer and philosopher Question: What was his ideas about the world?,3.Pythagoras (570-500B.C.) pai5WAErEs Greek philosopher and mathematician who founded in southern Italy a school that emphasized the st
4、udy of musical harmony and geometry. He proved the universal validity of the Pythagorean theorem and is considered the first true mathematician.,4.Heraclitus (535-475 B.C.) 7herE5klaitEs 赫拉克利特 Greek philosopher who maintained that strife and change are natural conditions of the universe. A person ca
5、nnot step into the same river twice. “Unity in opposition” is the principle which accounts for perpetual change.,5. Parmenides (515-440 B.C.) Greek Eleatic philosopherEleatic(埃里亚派）: Of or characteristic of the school of philosophy founded by Xenophanes /zi5nCfEni:z /色诺芬尼and Parmenides and holding th
6、e belief that immutable being is the only knowable reality and that change is the subject of mere opinion.埃利亚学派的关于色诺芬尼和巴门尼德创立的哲学学派的或以此学派为特征的，这个学派认为不动的存在是唯一可知的事实而变化是人的观点的主观臆想,6. Democritus di5mCkritEs 德谟克利特 (460-390 B.C.) Greek philosopher who developed an atomist theory of the universe and espoused
7、the doctrine that pleasure, along with self-control, is the goal of human life. Mechanistic: of or relating to the philosophy of mechanism, especially tending to explain phenomena only by reference to physical or biological causes.,Questions: 1) What were the familiar concepts to most Greek thinkers
8、 by the 5th century B.C.? 2) What was Skeptics Question?,Skeptic Epistemology i7pisti5mClEdVi 认识论 Question: What were the Sophistsideas about the world?,Great Philosophers,1. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) 5sCkrEti:z 苏格拉底Greek philosopher who initiated a question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of
9、 achieving self-knowledge. His theories of virtue and justice have survived through the writings of Plato, his most important pupil. Socrates was tried for corrupting the minds of Athenian youth and subsequently put to death.,Questions: What were Socratesmajor contributions to Western philosophy? Wh
10、at was his theory?,2. Plato (428-347B.C.) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic dialogues, as in The Republic(理想国）. His Motto:Mind over Matter.,Questions:
11、1) What was Platos “Idealism”? 2) What was the true world according to Platos story?,3. Aristotle(385-323B.C.) Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics(形而上学）, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly in
12、fluenced Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism 5silEdVizEm （三段论法, 推论法, 演绎）, is the essential method of rational inquiry.,Questions: 1) What was the difference between Platos and Aristotles ideas about the world? 2) what wa
13、s Aristotles major contribution?,The Middle Ages,The Christian dominated era Christianity The Christian religion, founded on the life and teachings of Jesus. Information about Christianity, http:/geneva.rutgers.edu Jesus Christ A teacher and prophet (先知）who lived in the first century of this era and
14、 whose life and teachings form the basis of Christianity. Christians believe Jesus to be Son of God and the Christ.,http:/geneva.rutgers.edu/src/christianity/,Medieval scholasticism,scholasticism :the dominant western Christian theological and philosophical school of the Middle Ages, based on the au
15、thority of the Latin Fathers and of Aristotle and his commentators. The middle ages (476-1400 A.D.) or the Medieval Period,Earlier ideas accepted by Christians 1.dual nature of the world 2.the separation of humans from the natural world 3. The need to promote virtue and goodness as human goals 4. Th
16、e importance of each human being,St. Augustine (354-430) Italian-born missionary and prelate who introduced Christianity to southern Britain and in 598 was ordained as the first archbishop of Canterbury.奥古斯丁意大利裔传教士及高级教士，他将基督教义传至英国南部，并于598年被任命为坎特伯雷地区第一任大主教,A borough of southeast England on the Stour
17、River east-southeast of London. Canterbury Cathedral (11th-16th century) is the seat of the archbishop and primate of the Anglican Communion. Built on the site of an abbey founded by Saint Augustine c. 600, it was the scene of the murder of Thomas Becket (1170). Population, 36,000.坎特伯雷英格兰东南部一座自治市，位于
18、伦敦东南偏东斯道尔河畔。坎特伯雷大教堂（建于11-16世纪）是英国圣公会的大主教和首席主教的住地。建在由圣奥古斯丁在公元600年建立的一个修道院的遗址上，是托马斯贝科特被谋杀的地点（1170年）。人口36,000,Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Italian Dominican monk, theologian, and philosopher. The outstanding representative of Scholasticism, he applied Aristotelian methods to Christian theology. His maste
19、rwork is Summa Theologica (1266-1273).阿奎那，托马斯1225-1274意大利圣多明尼克教派僧侣，神学家和哲学家。经院哲学杰出代表，他将亚里士多德的方法应用于基督神学。他的名著是 神学大全(1266-1273年）,The Renaissance(1400-1700),The precursor of the Modern Age The humanistic revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy in the 14th
20、 century and later spread throughout Europe.The period of this revival, roughly the 14th through the 16th century, marking the transition from medieval to modern times.,The rebirth of knowledge in Europe, the rebirth of the Greco-Roman texts Men became an object of investigation,Important scientists
21、,Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Polish astronomer who advanced the theory that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun, disrupting the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.哥白尼，尼科劳斯1473-1543波兰天文学家，他提出地球及其它行星绕太阳运动的日心说，推翻了托勒密的天文学理论即地心体系Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Johann Kepler (1571-1630) Isaac N
22、ewton (1642-1772),Francis Bacon (1561-1626)constructing a hypothesis English philosopher, essayist, courtier, jurist, and statesman. His writings include The Advancement of Learning (1605) and the Novum Organum (1620), in which he proposed a theory of scientific knowledge based on observation and ex
23、periment that came to be known as the inductive method.培根，弗朗西斯1561-1626英国哲学家、随笔作家、朝臣、法理学家和政治家。其作品包括 论科学的价值和发展（1605年）和 新推理论（1620年），在这部著作里他提出了以观察和实验为基础的科学认识理论，作为归纳法理论逐渐为人所知,Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) English political philosopher who wrote Leviathan (圣经中象征邪恶的)海中怪兽, 巨物)(1651), which outlined his philoso
24、phy that human beings are fundamentally selfish.,Rene Descartes (1596-1650) the modern father of Rationalism,Motto: I think; therefore, I am. French mathematician and philosopher. Considered the father of analytic geometry, he formulated the Cartesian system of coordinates(笛卡尔坐标体系公式化). His philosoph
25、y is based on the rationalistic premise “I think, therefore I am.”,John Locke (1632-1740) the modern father of Empiricism,John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher, whose association with Anthony Ashley Cooper (later the First Earl of Shaftesbury
26、) led him to become successively a government official charged with collecting information about trade and colonies, economic writer, opposition political activist, and finally a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.,Much of Lockes work is characterized b
27、y opposition to authoritarianism. This opposition is both on the level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church. For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use reason to search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities or be su
28、bject to superstition. He wants us to proportion assent to propositions to the evidence for them.,On the level of institutions it becomes important to distinguish the legitimate from the illegitimate functions of institutions and to make the corresponding distinction for the uses of force by these i
29、nstitutions. The positive side of Lockes anti-authoritarianism is that he believes that using reason to try to grasp the truth, and determining the legitimate functions of institutions will optimize human flourishing for the individual and society both in respect to its material and spiritual welfar
30、e. This in turn, amounts to following natural law and the fulfillment of the divine purpose for humanity.,David Hume(1711-1776),British philosopher and historian who argued that human knowledge arises only from sense experience. His works include A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740) and Political
31、Discourses (1752).休姆，戴维1711-1776英国哲学家和历史学家，他认为人类认识的唯一来源是感觉经验。他的作品包括 人性论(1739-1740年）和 政治论(1752年） His ideas: the laws of nature are what we expect, rather than what is reasonable.,George Berkeley (1685-1753),Knowledge is based on experience, and material objects only exist in their physical forms. Fou
32、ndation of all scientific knowledge is sense experience. He attempted to reconcile Empiricism and religion.,The Modern Paradigm,Questions: 1.What is teleological explanation? 2.What are the differences between the philosophers in earlier age and the philosophers in the Renaissance?,Modern Philosophy
33、,the Age of Enlightenment A philosophical movement of the 18th century that emphasized the use of reason to scrutinize previously accepted doctrines and traditions and that brought about many humanitarian reforms. 启蒙运动18世纪的一个哲学运动，强调运用理智来审视先前被接受了的信条和传统，该运动带来了许多人道主义改革.,Montesquieu(1689-1755) French ph
34、ilosopher and jurist. An outstanding figure of the early French Enlightenment, he wrote the influential Parisian Letters (1721), a veiled attack on the monarchy and the ancient regime, and The Spirit of the Laws (1748), a discourse on government.孟德斯鸠法国哲学家和法学家。他是早期法国启蒙运动的杰出人物。著有隐含攻击君主制和古代政体的有影响力的作品如
35、巴黎人信札(1721年）和谴责政府的 论法的精神(1748年）,Voltaire(1694-1778) French philosopher and writer whose works epitomize the Age of Enlightenment, often attacking injustice and intolerance. He wrote Candide (1759) and the Philosophical Dictionary (1764).伏尔泰法国哲学家和作家，其作品是启蒙时代的代表，常常攻击不公正和不宽容。他著有 老实人(1759年）和 哲学辞典(1764年）
36、,Rousseau(1712-1778) French primitive painter of portraits, still lifes, city scenes, and metaphorical works, such as The Snake Charmer (1907).卢梭，简雅克1712-1778法国哲学家和作家，主张人的本性是好的，但被社会腐化了。其著作有 民约论和小说 爱弥尔（均写于1762年）,Immanuel Kant(1724-1804),German idealist philosopher who argued that reason is the means
37、by which the phenomena of experience are translated into understanding. His classic works include Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788), in which he put forward his system of ethics based on the categorical imperative.康德，伊曼纽尔1724-1804德国唯心主义哲学家，主张经验现象通过理性转变成知性。其经典著作包括
38、 纯粹理性批判（1781年）和 实践理性批判（1788年）。在这些著作中他提出了基于绝对命令的伦理学体系。,His contributions: He combined elements of both Rationalism and Empiricism into one new comprehensive system to explain how humans know the world. His ideas:All change has a cause and that the law of causality was eternal and absolute. categorica
39、l imperative In the ethical system of Immanuel Kant, an unconditional moral law that applies to all rational beings and is independent of any personal motive or desire.无上命令在伊曼纽尔康德的伦理学体系中，适用于一切有理性的人并独立于任何个人动机或欲望之外的无条件的道德法则,Questions: What was Kants first category of Knowledge? What was Kants second c
40、ategory of knowledge?,2. Romanticism(1780-1840),An artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individuals expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of clas
41、sicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions.浪漫主义运动起源于18世纪末期欧洲的一种对大自然有强烈的兴趣且注重个人情感和想象力的表达的艺术和知识上的运动，它与古典主义的观点和形式相悖并反对公认的社会制度和习俗,Question: What were the two types of Romanticism?,3. Georg Hegel(1770-1831),German philosopher who proposed that truth is reached by a continuing
42、dialectic. His major works include Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817) and The Philosophy of Right (1821).黑格尔，格奥尔格威廉弗雷德里希1770-1831德国哲学家，提出真理是由不断的对立矛盾达到的。主要著作包括 哲学纲要(1817年）和 逻辑学(1821年）,His two contributions His treatment of the paradoxical nature of change. The concept of dialectical ch
43、ange His method: dialectical process His,At the time of Hegels death, he was the most prominent philosopher in Germany. His views were widely taught, and his students were highly regarded. His followers soon divided into right-wing and left-wing Hegelians. Theologically and politically the right-win
44、g Hegelians offered a conservative interpretation of his work. They emphasized the compatibility between Hegels philosophy and Christianity. Politically, they were orthodox(正统的）. The left-wing Hegelians eventually moved to an atheistic（无神论的） position.,In politics, many of them became revolutionaries
45、. This historically important left-wing group included Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Friedrich Engels, and Karl Marx. Engels and Marx were particularly influenced by Hegels idea that history moves dialectically, but they replaced Hegels philosophical idealism with materialism. Hegels metaphysical i
46、dealism had a strong impact on 19th-century and early 20th-century British philosophy, notably that of Francis Herbert Bradley, and on such American philosophers.,Hegel also influenced existentialism through the Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard. Phenomenology has been influenced by Hegels ideas o
47、n consciousness. The extensive and diverse impact of Hegels ideas on subsequent philosophy is evidence of the remarkable range and the extraordinary depth of his thought.,Modern Philosophical Trends,Charles Darwin(1809-1882) Karl Marx(1818-1883) Sigmund Freud(1858-1947) Austrian physician and founde
48、r of psychoanalysis who theorized that the symptoms of hysterical patients represent forgotten and unresolved infantile psychosexual conflicts. His psychoanalytic theories, which initially met with hostility, profoundly influenced 20th-century thought.Albert Einstein(1879-1955),1.Existentialism,A ph
49、ilosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the individual experience in a hostile or indifferent universe, regards human existence as unexplainable, and stresses freedom of choice and responsibility for the consequences of ones acts.存在主义一种强调在怀有敌意或冷漠的世界中个人经历的独特性和孤立性的哲学，它认为人的存在是不可解释的，并强调
50、选择的自由和对自己行为的结果负责,Friedrich Nietzsche(1844-1900) German philosopher who reasoned that Christianitys emphasis on the afterlife makes its believers less able to cope with earthly life. He argued that the ideal human being, the Ubermensch, would be able to channel passions creatively instead of suppressing them. His written works include Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-1892).尼采，弗里德里希威廉1844-1900德国哲学家，论断基督教强调的来生说使它的信徒们不能很好地处理现世的生活。他坚持认为理想化的人类， 超人哲学能够创造性地引导情感而不被它们所压制。他的著作包括 善与恶的彼岸(1886年）和 查拉图斯特拉如是说(1883-1892年）,
