1、性格心理學:from Social Learningto Social Cognitive,東吳大學心理學系 教授 王叢桂Soochow UniversityDepartment of Psychology,Social learning theory: 將學習原則應用於社會情境中，故稱為社會學習取向。共同特色:1. 重視個體的主動性 (active agent)2.個體認知歷程(cognitive process)3.重視行為的社會影響（ social origins of behavior ）如：Situation Cue Learning4.重視個體差異(與Skinner 不同)：重視行
2、為的平均值與變異性 (mean and vaiability)5.重視在缺乏酬賞的情境下，複雜行為的學習。,From Social Learning to Social Cognitive theory,RELATING SOCIALCOGNITIVE THEORY TO THE PREVIOUS THEORIES,Phenomenological theory, personal construct theory, and social-cognitive theory share interest in How people construct personal meaning out o
3、f the events of their livesHow beliefs about the self contribute to meaning construction processesSocial-cognitivists provide critical details about specific cognitive processes in personality functioning that are missing in the phenomenological and personal construct approachAre able to do this by
4、drawing on contemporary research findings that were unavailable to earlier theorists,A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS,ALBERT BANDURA (1925 ) Grew up in northern Alberta, Canada; went to college at the University of British ColumbiaDid graduate work in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa because it
5、was known for research on learning processesAfter obtaining his Ph.D. at Iowa in 1952, went to Stanford University, where he has spent his entire careerWork on familial causes of aggression identified the central role of modeling Adolescent Aggression (Bandura & Walters, 1959) and Social Learning an
6、d Personality Development (Bandura & Walters, 1963) laid the foundations for the social-cognitive perspective on personality 1969, Principles of Behavior Modification, reformulated behavior therapy by directing therapists attention to the thinking processes of their clients,A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS,A
7、LBERT BANDURA (1925 ) During the past quarter century, has devoted attention to thinking processes involving personal goals, self-evaluation, and beliefs about ones own capabilities for performance (1977, 1997)Central interest is in the ways in which these thinking processes give people the capacity
8、 for personal agencyAddresses societal factors, such as social and economic conditions, that influence peoples beliefs about their ability to influence eventsMost significant effort to formulate his comprehensive theory is Social Foundations of Thought and Action (Bandura, 1986)Has received numerous
9、 awards for distinguished scientific achievement1974 was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA)1980 received the Associations Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award “for masterful modeling as researcher, teacher, and theoretician” 2004 received APAs Award for Outstand
10、ing Lifetime Contribution to PsychologyHas received honorary degrees from universities throughout North American and Europe.,A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS,WALTER MISCHEL (1930 ) Born in Vienna and lived his first nine years “in easy playing distance of Freuds house” Did his graduate work at Ohio State Uni
11、versity; studied with George Kelly and Julian RotterAfter earning PhD, spent a number of years at Harvard University and then joined the faculty of Stanford University1965 participated in a Peace Corps assessment project that had a profound influence on himIn this project it was found that global tr
12、ait measures did a poor job of predicting performanceIncreased his skepticism concerning the utility of traditional personality theories, such as trait and psychoanalytic theory1968s Personality and Assessment challenged theoretical psychoanalysis and trait theory,A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS,WALTER MISC
13、HEL (1930 ) Arguments became the cornerstone of the “person-situation controversy”1973, provided an alternative set of cognitive-social personal variables 1978, received the Distinguished Scientist Award from the Clinical Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association1983, cited by th
14、e Association for his outstanding contributions to personality theory and assessmentSince 1984 has been a professor of psychology at Columbia University1999, accepted a position as editor of the Psychological Review, the most important publication outlet for theoretical papers in the field of psycho
15、logy20022003, served as president of the Association for Research in Personality2004, was elected as a member of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences an exceptionally rare honor,A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS,IMPACT OF THE THEORISTS Recent review assessed the scientific impact of the psychologists of the
16、 20th centuryAssessment included analysis of the frequency of citations in scientific journals and psychology textbooksBandura and Mischel ranked among the centuries top 25 most impactful psychologistsWork of only three psychologists was ranked as more influential than Banduras: Skinner, Piaget, and
17、 FreudThere are only four living individuals who were ranked among the 25 most eminent psychologists of the previous century,重要學者J. RotterSocial cognitive theory:更重視 (1)人格研究的核心在於 個體的認知歷程(2)個體經由社會互動發展出思考歷程後繼學者：Bandura, Mischel,Rotters Social Learning Theory,一 、特色：1.個體對外界的主觀建構2.重視社會情境3.動機與認知(expectati
18、on)4.Performance vs. Learning人們根據對行為後果的預測選擇行為表現5.重視行為表現的心理情境(Psychological Situation),二、理論 （ ）S1;,S1,RaS0; （S1;, Ra, S1S0; S1;a, S1S0;）S1;,S1,RaS0; ：與增強 a 有關的行為 x 在情境出現的可能性S1;, Ra, S1S0;：期望增強 a 出現之機率S1;a, S1S0;： 對該情境中該酬賞之價值評估 （） ：need potential ：freedom of movement ：Need value例：當有人在宴會中侮辱了你選 擇 可能後果 期
19、望值 價值 行為可能性侮辱回去 道 歉 High High High要求道歉 嘲 笑 High Very Low Low離 開 覺得自己很驢 Average Low Low揍 他 流 血 Low Low Low,Rotters Social Learning Theory,三、Problem Solving Generalized Expectancies根據過去經驗形成兩類主要的類化期望1.Interpersonal Trust2. I-E Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement四、性格發展有關需求六項1.Recognition-S
20、tatus：Excel, Competent, Occupation, Athletics, Good Looks etc.2.Dominance：need to control others, exercise power & influence on others.3.Independence：make own decision4.Protection-Dependency：Protection & Security5.Love & Affection：be accepted & liked by others6.Physical Comfort：,Rotters Social Learn
21、ing Theory,五、適應問題1.Low freedom of movement but high need value(expectancies)2.Minimal goal level：個人認為可以產生增強的最低目標水準例：是 A 才行還是 C 就可以3.Failure to Discriminate：缺乏區辨能力某種需求過高，使人不能區辨在不同環境中應有的不同表現4.需求間相互衝突5.缺乏能力達成目標,Rotters Social Learning Theory,六、測量工具1.The I-E Scale：29 題，測量個體認為造成其行為後果（賞罰）的原因是來自個人的努力或資源，或者
22、是來自外在不可控制的因素(1).此量表與社會贊許性相關甚低，智力與性別無關，內在一致性與再測信度高(2).在一般情境中，高內控者較會尋求訊息，有較高成就，心理適應較好，較會從事提升健康的行為，獨立但能與他人合作(3).在不能控制的環境下如老人院，外控者適應較佳(4).外控者又分為(a).Congruent Externals (一致型)：相信行為是不能控制的(b).Defensive Externals(防衛型)：測驗分數與行為不一致，成功歸己，失敗歸於外界(5).特殊性內外控：針對特殊情境的內外控預期2.Interpersonal Trust：相信他人或他團體所作的承諾的一般性期望(Gene
23、ral Expectancy)一般而言，高信任度者適應較佳，人際關係較好,Social Cognitive theory:對人的觀點,Three psychological qualities are essential features of persons: Persons are beings who can reason about the world using language 人可以使用語言理解世界Persons can reason about not only on present circumstances, but events in their past and hyp
24、othetical events in the future 可以理解當下與過去或未來假設性的事件This reasoning commonly involves reflection on the selfthe being who is doing the reasoning 理解需透過自我反思,SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORYS VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY,SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY: STRUCTUREFour structural concepts are particularl
25、y noteworthy: Competencies and skillsExpectancies and beliefsBehavioral standardsPersonal goals,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,人格結構：四種認知系統一、 勝任感與技巧 (competence and skills) :思考問題與解決問題的方法與技巧，包括：1. declarative knowledge: 敘說性知識2. Procedural knowledge程序知識:會做但不一定能意識到的認知與行為能力。勝任感有 Context s
26、pecificity情境脈絡特殊性勝任感可以透過社會互動與觀察改變,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,二、Beliefs and expectations 信念與期望1.對未來的信念2.信念有情境特殊性：因情境而異3.在形成期望時，每個人會有特殊的情境期望組合。因此產生個人化的特殊期望與社會行為。例如：可能將與休閒有關的情境組合，或者將引發焦慮的相關情境組合。,SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORYS VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY,BELIEFS AND EXPECTANCIES Thr
27、ee different ways that people may think about the world People have beliefs about what the world actually is like and what things probably will be like in the future (When the beliefs are directed to the futureexpectancies)People have thoughts about what things should be like: evaluative standards;
28、mental criteria for evaluating the goodness or worth of eventsPeople have thoughts about what one wants to achieve in the future goals,SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORYS VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY,BELIEFS AND EXPECTANCIES A primary determinant of our actions and emotions is our expectations about the
29、futurePeople have expectancies about The likely behavior of other people 他人行為The rewards or punishments that may follow a certain type of behavior 行為導致之酬賞或懲罰Their own ability to handle the stress and challenges 改變壓力或挑戰之能力,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,The self and Self-efficacy beli
30、efs自我功效信念 對自我在未來某情境中可以表現出某種能力的知覺 1. 不是特質論的global variable，因情境不同而不同 2.不是抽象的自我價值感，而是對自我在具體情境中可表現的能力判斷。 3.與成果 (outcome) 期望不同，後者是對行為會得到酬賞與懲罰的期望與self esteem不同：SE是指對個人價值的整體評價,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,The self and Self-efficacy beliefs自我功效信念 對自我在未來某情境中可以表現出某種能力的知覺 1. 不是特質論的global vari
31、able，因情境不同而不同 2.不是抽象的自我價值感，而是對自我在具體情境中可表現的能力判斷。 3.與成果 (outcome) 期望不同，後者是對行為會得到酬賞與懲罰的期望與self esteem不同：SE是指對個人價值的整體評價,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,三、評價標準 evaluative standardspersonal standards:與動機情緒有關，人們會將自己的行為與內在標準作比較，並因此產生情緒與動機。Self-evaluative reactions: 經由評價產生的對自我滿意或不滿意的情緒反應評價標準是道
32、德行為的核心,例子：Moral disengagement 道德解離：,因個人利益，選擇性的暫時與自我道德標準隔絕。如：道德標準不適用於敵人或壞人 Osofsky, Bandura, & Zimbardo (2005)監獄中與負責執行死刑越有關的人員，越可能暫時性道德解離。他們比較會讚同死刑比謀殺要慈悲,行為學派對評價標準：由實驗者（外在來源）判斷社會認知學派：即使經由觀察模仿習得評價標準，個體內在的評價標準與自我評價反應決定其後續行為,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,四、目標goal：對行動的目標的認知呈現mental repre
33、sentations of the aim of an action or course of actions.1. 影響自我控制 self control2. goal systems: hierarchical structures3.個體之間對任務的目標不同例如：目標難度，遠程或近程目標，近程目標對行為影響較大，目標是學習(learning)或表現(performance)會影響個體的學習行為目標系統與期望互動，高自我功效者通常擁有較高的目標與承諾,Social cognitive theory: personality structure,社會認知取向的四種認知結構，是四種認知次系統，
34、經由互動產生社會認知。個體的敘述性與程序性知識與上述系統組成個體獨特人格結構，針對不同情境有不同的系統內涵，經由瞭解上述社會認知結構系統，以及認知結構系統和社會的互動，以瞭解個體行為。,人格歷程 process,一、reciprocal determinism:互動決定論 (Bandura)行為決定於個體個人特色，行動環境特色，與行動。由三者相互雙向影響。二、Cognitive affective processing systems （CAPS） Mischel & Shoda (1995)1.認知與情感人格特質複雜相連。2. 情境中的不同特性引發不同的人格次系統，因此同一個體在不同情境中會
35、表現不同行為。,CAPS研究範例,Shoda et al (1994) 觀察兒童在營隊各不同情境中，五項社會行為的表現發現：1. 情境會影響行為。2. 個體在不同情境中有平均值（個別）差異。此點符合特質論的預測。3. 行為特徵 (Behavior signatures)：個體有獨特的情境-行為組型，這是與特質論主張不同之處； 不同個體即使在同一情境行為表現的平均值相同，但是在同一情境中表現的行為特徵的組型各有不同。,Social cognitive theory: growth & development,經由：直接酬賞（直接經驗行為後果）學習對在特定情境的特定行為的獎懲，發展出預期經由代理經
36、驗：學習情緒反應與發展預期觀念上述兩種歷程影響人格四種認知建構自我產生的行為後果(self-produced consequences)：當發展出認知勝任感受與評價標準時，個體會發展出自我調控機構，預期要達成目標時可已有的酬賞與懲罰，以維持行為。,Social cognitive theory: A. Bandura,Basic Conception1.Reciprocal determinism：互動決定論 交互作用三種解釋(1).視 Person & Situation 為自變項，二者互動產生行為，亦即某類人在某些情境下會作某件事(2).個體具有的特質使他易接觸某些情境，而該情境又引發相關
37、特質的表現(3).Reciprocal Determinism：行為、情境、與個體三者間的互動,Reciprocal Determinism：行為、情境、與個體三者間的互動 Behavior E：External Factors P： Internal Factors(rewards, Punishments) (belief, thoughts, expectations)例1.：雖然你本來不想逛街(低期望)，某人的行為（特別令人順眼）使你願陪他去,(behavior Internal)，而逛街感覺甚好的(External Internal)使下次逛街期望增高 (External Inter
38、nal),A. Bandura,2.Beyond Reinforcement：學習不需增強，但增強在決定是否表現行為上很重要，例：罵髒話。3.Cognition：image thought是行為中介媒介例：高手看人練武，一看就會 vs. 低手.4.Observational Learning：名詞(1).Modeling Cues：示範者行為的組成部分(2).Live Modeling：以真人為模仿對象(3).Symbolic Modeling：經由想像、媒體或傳說等間接學習,A. Bandura,歷程(1). Attention Processes (注意) Mental Images(2)
39、.Retention Processes (回憶) Verbal Codes(3).Motor Reproduction Processes (動作產生)(4).Motivational Processes (動機)5.Vicarious Learning & Conditioning(1).Vicarious Reinforcement：代理酬賞。例：殺雞警猴(2).Vicarious Conditioning：代理制約觀察model 受制約，自己亦會被制約例：看完恐怖片，回家時對與片中類似街道產生反應6.Acquistion vs. Performance :c.f. Fig.15,A.
40、Bandura,6.Self-Regulation and motivation：自我管理（酬賞或處罰）與動機個體有能力自我管理，設定目標、規劃策略、控制衝動、評價與修改行為個體對未來遠程目標的預期，以及想要的滿足會影響其行為誘因,7.Self-Efficacy：自我功效(1).個體對其能成功的執行所欲達成目標的行為的信心(2).在影響行為表現上，部分獨立於實際的能力(3).Efficacy 期望與行為後果預期不同個體可能相信某樣行為(例投進三分球)可以導致某種後果（例：得到讚賞），但他不一定相信他自己能作到那樣行為,Self-efficacy 的測量：微分析研究策略(microanalyti
41、c research) 測量對特定情境 (specific situation) 中表現特定行為 (specific behavior) 的可能性 。例子：不會問：你在某項行為（如籃球）上有多好？會問具體行為：如：你對在球賽中罰球命中率75%以上有多高的自信？,A. Bandura,(4).Self-Efficacy 的訊息基礎(Bandura，1986：399)(a).行為成就：Performance Attainments(b).觀察他人表現該行為得到的代理酬賞經驗，例：他都能作，我一定可以(c).以語言說服自我(Verbal Persuasion) I think I can(d).生理
42、狀態，個體會根據自己的情緒反應(如面對情境時是平靜或恐懼)來判定自己是否能作到該事(e).Self-Efficacy 是性格改變（透過各類心理治療或其他方式）的認知機轉。例：參與及示範方式提供代理經驗及成功經驗兩種訊息對 Self-Efficacy 的增進較示範方式及提供代理經驗訊息為佳,社會認知理論假設self-efficacy 會影響 (causal influence) 行為,驗證因果關係的實驗範例：以語句操弄的方式來改變 Self-Efficacy操弄低(高)參考點組(Anchor)，其語句如下(two self-efficacy questions)為：In this experim
43、ent, do you think you will be able to do (more than, less than, equal to)4 or 18 of the pencil mazes?控制組(無參考點組)其語句如下：How many finger mazes do you think you are capable of solving?見 D. Cervone & P.K. Peake (1986). Anchoring, Efficacy, and Action：The Influence of Judgmental Heuristics on Self-Efficacy
44、 Judgments and Behavior. JPSP, 50, 498.,A. Bandura,Average levels of self-efficacy and task persistence as function of anchoring condition in Cevone and Peakes 1986 experiment,Self Efficacy,Level of Self-efficacy,A. Bandura,Average levels of self-efficacy and task persistence as function of anchorin
45、g condition in Cevone and Peakes 1986 experiment,Task Persistence,Level of task persistence,Self-Efficacy的主要訊息來源，及心理治療如何影響Efficacy期望的範例,Performance Accomplishments,Participant Modeling,Performance Desensitization,Performance Exposure,Self-instructed Performance,Symbolic Modeling,Live Modeling,Vicari
46、ous Experience,Suggestion,Exhortation,Self-Instruction,Interpretive Treatments,Attribution,Relaxation, Biofeedback,Symbolic Desensitization,Symbolic Exposure,Verbal Persuasion,Emotional Arousal,社會認 知 取 向,Walter Mischel影響其思想的重要人物George Kelly, Julian Rotter, Henry Murray Albert Bandura重要貢獻一、對傳統特質及精神分析衡鑑的批評二、Person Variables：組成性格的個人變項三、對 Consistency Paradox 的理論解釋與實徵研究四、探討情緒與認知的交互作用,社會認 知 取 向,一、對傳統特質研究的批評1.幾乎所有經由性格量表測量而得的性格向度與(除了其他的量表之外的)行為表現媒介 (medium) 的相關皆相當低2.認為傳統測驗測量(signs of behavior) 不如情境測驗測量(samples of behavior) 的預測力高,
