1、第 1 页 共 21 页词汇学简答等 20140405C0 introductionLexicology is a branch of linguistics, which is both a theoretical and practical course.There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely _ and _.synchronic, diachronicC1 Basic Concepts of Word and Vocabulary wordA word is a minimal free form
2、of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.What is the relationship between sound and meaningThere is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. Eg. Dog means gou in Chinese. On the other hand,
3、 the same sound rait can mean right, rite, and write, though denoting different things, them have the same sound.Why do more and more differences occur between sound and form?Why is English sound an imperfect representation of the spoken form? English alphabet does not have a separate letter to repr
4、esent each sound in the language. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. Borrowing of foreign language. Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. Printing freezes the spelling of words while sound continues to change as usual.VocabularyVocabulary refers
5、 to the total number of the words in a language, all the words used in a particular historical period, and all the words of a given dialect and so on. By _, words can be classified into _.by use frequency, basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary;by notion, content words and functional words; by ori
6、gin, native words and borrowed words.第 2 页 共 21 页the basic word stock The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.What is the character of basic word stock? All national character. The basic word stock denote the most
7、common things and phenomena of the world around us. Stability, they are likely to remain relatively unchanged. Productivity, they are mostly root words, means they can form new words with other roots and affixes. Polysemy, they often possess more than one meaning. Collocability, many of them have ma
8、ny set expressions, proverbial sayings and so on. Eg, heart, a heart of gold, learn by heart.terminologyTerminology is technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in music, symphony.jargonJargon is the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, t
9、rades and professions communicate among themselves as in business, bottom line for unavoidable result.slangSlang is the sub-standard language, which seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like jargon and argot, eg. Dough and
10、 bread means money.argotArgot is the jargon of criminals. Only the sub-cultural groups use it, and outsiders can hardly understand it, eg, Persuader means dagger.dialectal wordsDialectal words is words used only by speakers of the dialect in question, eg. Beauty in Australia means excellent.第 3 页 共
11、21 页archaismsArchaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Eg, brethren means brother.neologismsNeologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Eg, internet.functional wordsFunctional
12、words, also called empty words, form words, do not have notions of their own. Their chief function is to express the relation between words or between sentences. Prepositions, conjunctions belong to it. Eg, on, to.What are the features of native words? 7They are in basic word stock.They are neutral
13、in style.They are frequent in use.borrowingsWe can classified the borrowed words into four classes according to _.the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing.The four classes of borrowings are _.denizens, aliens, translation-loans, semantic-loans.denizensDenizens is words borrowed early and n
14、ow are well assimilated into English language. Eg. Pork.aliensAliens are borrowings which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Eg, decor.translation-loansTranslation-loans is words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patter
15、ns taken from another language. Eg. Mother tongue from Latin.第 4 页 共 21 页semantic-loansSemantic-loans is words not borrow with reference to the form, but borrow their meanings. Eg, the modern meaning of dream borrowed from Norse.C2 The Development of the English VocabularyThree main period in Englis
16、h historyOld English, Anglo-Saxon; Middle English, 1150-1500; Modern English.If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.Thre
17、e main sources of new words of present-day English vocabulary(1) the rapid development of modern science and technology；(2) social, economic and political changes；(3) the influence of other cultures and languages.modes of vocabulary development in English historycreation, semantic change, borrowing,
18、 reviving archaic.C3 Word Formation P208 树状图morphemeMorpheme is the minimal meaningful unit in word formation.Structurally, a morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.monomorphemic wordsmonomorphemic words is the morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function f
19、reely in a sentence, eg, bird, tree, green.allomorphsAllomorphs is morphemes realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word, eg, in cats /s/, in bags/z/.free morphemesfree morphemes, also called free root, is the morphemes which have complete meaning and 第 5 页 共 21 页can be use
20、d as free grammatical units in sentences, eg. cat, walk.bound morphemesBound morphemes is Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, eg, recollection = re+collect+ion.bound rootBound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental mean
21、ing like a free root, but it is bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.affixesAffixes is forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.The difference between inflection affixes and derivational affixesinflectional affixesInflectional affixe
22、s, also called inflectional morphemes, is affixes which attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectionalderivational affixesDerivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. rootA root is the basic form of a word, which can not be furth
23、er analyzed without total loss of identity, eg, international, the root is nation.stemA stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added in word formation.P44 一个词，拆分分析。如 individualistic, undesirable.C4 word formation part 2The major processes of word formation in present Englishaffixation, c
24、ompounding and conversion.The difference between affixation and prefixationaffixation第 6 页 共 21 页Affixation, also called derivation, is a way to add word-forming or derivational affixes to stems in word formation.The words formed by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems are called der
25、ivatives.prefixationPrefixation is a way to add prefixes to stems in word formation. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.suffixationSuffixation is a way to suffixes to stems in word formation, and the suffixes mainly change the word poundingCompounding, also called c
26、omposition, is a way to join two or more stems in word formation. Compound is produced in this way. compoundA compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.! What are the characteristics of Compounds, or what are the
27、differences between compound and free phrases?1 Phonetic featuresIn compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. 2 Semantic featuresCompounds are different from free phrases in semantic uni
28、ty. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. 3 Grammatical featuresA compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.Compounds are different from free phrases in _ unit.第 7 页 共 21 页答案：semanticVerb compounds are created
29、 either through _.答案：conversion or back formationconversionConversion, also called zero-derivation or functional shift, is a way to convert words of one class to another class in word formation. full conversion, partial conversion P58 201104 应用，201204 简答What is the differences between partial and fu
30、ll conversion? Explain them with examples.Comment on the following groups to illustrate the differences between partial and full conversion.Group 1, white - a white, final - finalsGroup 2, rich - the rich, wounded - the woundedNouns converted from adjectives can classify into two types, full convers
31、ion, and partial conversion.Group 1 shows the feature of full conversion - a noun fully converted from an adjectives has all the characteristics of nouns and can take an indefinite article or-（e）s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, white is an adjective and a white is a noun phrase,
32、 meaning a white man. finals indicates final exams.Group 2 shows the feature of partial conversion - a noun partially converted from adjectives does not have all the qualities a nouns does and retains some of the adjective features. Moreover, they must be used with definite articles. Eg, the poor, t
33、he rich.For example, rich is an adjective and the rich is the rich people. .blendingBlending is a way to combine parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word in word formation. Eg, smog = sm(smoke) + og(fog).Words formed in blending are called _.blends or pormanteau wordsblending 四个类型，判断
34、等 P63head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail第 8 页 共 21 页clippingClipping is a way to shorten a long word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead in word formation.clipping 四个类型front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.acronymyAcronymy is a w
35、ay to join the initial letters of organizations or special noun phrases in word formation. So initialisms and acronyms are produced. Acronymy is to join the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms in word formation.initialismsInitial
36、ism is words formed from the initial letters and pronouns letter by letter. Eg, VOA.acronymsAcronyms is words formed from initial letters but pronounced as normal words. Eg. BASIC.back-formationBack-formation is a way to remove the supposed suffixes which are parts of the words in word formation.Bot
37、h back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. Can you explain the difference? Illustrate your point with examples.Back-formation is a way to remove the supposed suffixes which are parts of the words in word formation, while back-clipping is a way to sh
38、orten a long word by cutting the back part off the original and using what remains instead.Back-formation words are mostly verbs, eg, donate(v.) from donation(n.).Back-clipping words are just shortened ones, eg, dorm for dormitory, bike for bicycle, maths for mathematics.举例知道专有名词是哪一类，如 nylon - trade
39、namesNames of people, places, books, tradenames.C5 Word Meaning第 9 页 共 21 页简答，区分 reference 和 sense.referenceReference is the relationship between language and the world. Only when a word and a referent connect does the word become meaningful.conceptConcept is the result of human cognition, reflectin
40、g the objective world in the human mind.The relationship between meaning and conceptMeaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Concept is the result of human cognition, refl
41、ecting the objective world in the human mind, while meaning belongs to language.The relationship between words and things in the world is established by means of _答案，referenceThe reference of a word to a thing outside the languagearbitrary and conventional.senseSense are the relationships inside the
42、 language.Every word has sense.给例子，进行 motivation 分析（理据）motivationMotivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol / word-form and its meaning.onomatopoeic motivationOnomatopoeic Motivation is the character of some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, eg, crow by cocks.seman
43、tic motivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a 第 10 页 共 21 页word. Eg, the mouth of the river.etymological motivationThe meanings of many words relate directly to their origins.grammatical meanings经常考Grammatical meanings is the part of the words
44、meaning which indicates grammatical relationships such as speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns and their inflectional forms and so on.具体句子分析 P86The dog is chasing a cat.Dog and cat are nouns and both are singular. Is is a function wordconceptual meaning考过Conceptual meaning, also cal
45、led denotative meaning, is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.associative meaning comprises four typesconnotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.connotative meaning考过，也考过分析。connotative meaning, also called connotations, is the overtones or associations sug
46、gested by the conceptual meaning. Eg, “home”, denoting “a dwelling place”, is often associate with family.affective meaningAffective meaning indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question, eg, notorious, meaning famous, shows the attitude of disapproval.collocative meaningCo
47、llocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.第 11 页 共 21 页C6 sense relations and semantic fieldWhat is polysemy and illustrate it.two approaches to polysemy 简答Polysemy is a fact that a word has more than one meaning. The two approac
48、hes to it are diachronic and synchronic. Diachronically, polysemy is the result of growth of the semantic structure of one word. Synchronically, polysemy is the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at the same time.two processes of development in polysemyradiation, concatenationThe diffe
49、rence of radiation and concatenationradiationRadiation is a semantic process where the derived meaning being directly connected to the primary process like rays.concatenationConcatenation, meaning linking together, is the process where each of the later meaning being related only to the preceding one like chains.homonymsHomonyms are words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms perfect homonyms, homographs, homophones.perfect homonyms
