1、Chapter 2 Equivalence at word level2.1. The word in different languages2.1.1 What is a word?The smallest unit which we would expect to possess individual meaning is the“word“.If defined loosely ,the word is the smallest unit of language that can be used by itself.2.1.2 Is there a one-to-one relation
2、ship between word and meaning?within or across languages. 2.1.3 Introducing morphemesMorpheme is the minimal formal element of the meaning of language.An important difference between morphemes and words is that a morpheme cannot contain more than one element of meaning and cannot be further analysed
3、.2.2. Lexical meaningIt is just the lexical meaning which is the most outstanding individual property of the word.The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system and the personality it acquires through usage within that s
4、ystem.According to Cruse, we can distinguish four main types of meaning in words and utterances:propositional meaning, expressive meaning, presupposed meaning and evoked meaning.2.2.1. Propositional meaning VS expressive meaningThe propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from the rela
5、tion between it and what is refers to or describes in a real or imaginary world.It is this type of meaning which provides the basis on which we can judge an utterance as true or false.When a translation is described as inaccurate, it is often the propositional meaning that is being called into quest
6、ion.Expressive meaning cannot be judged as true or false. This is because expressive meaning relates to the speakers feeling or attitude rather than to what word and utterances refer to.Two or more words or utterances can therefore have the same propositional meaning but differ in their expressive m
7、eaning.The meaning of a word or lexical unit can be both propositional and expressive.Words which contribute solely to expressive meaning can be removed from an utterance without affecting its information content.2.2.2. Presupposed meaningPresupposed meaning arises from co-occurrence restriction, i.
8、e. Restrictions on what other words or expressions we expect to see before or after a particular lexical unit:selectional restrictions and collocational restrictions.2.2.3. Evoked meaningEvoked meaning arised from dialect and register variation. A dialect is a variety of language which has currency
9、within a specific community or group of speakers. Dialect can be classified on such bases as geographical, temporal or social.Register is a variety of language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific situation.Register variation arises from variations in the following:1 Filed of dis
10、course:this is an abstract term for “what is going on“ that is relevant to the speakers choice of linguistic items.2 Tenor of discourse:an abstract term for the relationships between the people taking part in the discourse.3 Mode of discourse:an abstract term for the role that the language is playin
11、g and for its medium of transmission.Of all the types of lexical meaning explained above, the only one which relates to the truth or falsehood of an utterance and which can consequently be challenged by a reader or hearer is propositional meaning.2.3 The problem of non-equivalence2.3.1 Semantic fiel
12、ds and lexical sets-the segmentation of experienceIt is useful to view the vocabulary of a language as a set of words referring to a series of conceptual fields. These fields reflect the divisions and sub-divisions “imposed“by a given linguistic community on the continuum of experience. In linguisti
13、cs, the divisions are called semantic fields. The actual words and expressions under each field are sometimes called lexical sets.Limitations aside,there are two main areas in which an understanding of semantic fields and lexical sets can be useful to a translator:(1) appreciate the value that a wor
14、d has in a given system, (2) developing strategies for dealing with non-equivalence:(1）understanding the difference in the structure of semantic fields in the source language and target language allows a translator to assess the value of a given item in a lexical set.（2）Semantic fields are arranged
15、hierarchically, going from the more general to the more specific.One important thing to bear in mind when dealing with semantic fields is that they are not fixed. Semantic fields are always changing, with new words and expressions being introduced into the language and others being dropped as they b
16、ecome less relevant to the needs of a linguistic community.2.3.2. Non-equivalence at word level and some common strategies for dealing with it2.3.2.1. Common problems of non-equivalence1 Cultural-specific concepts2 The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target language3 The source-lan
17、guage word is semantically complex4 The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning5 The target language lacks a superordinate6 The target language lacks a specific term (huponym)7 Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective8 Differences in expressive meaning9 Differe
18、nces in form10 Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms11 The use of loan words in the source text. Loan words pose one kind of problems for the unwary translator, namely the problem of false friends, or faux amis as they are often the same form in two or more languages but conve
19、y different meanings.2.3.2.2. Strategies used by professional translators(a) translation by a more general word (superordinate). This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non-equivalence,particularly in the area of propositional meaning.(b) Translation by a more neutral
20、or less expressive word(c) Translation by cultural substitution. This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item of expression with a target language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader. The main advantage of us
21、ing this strategy is that it gives the reader a concept with which she or he can identify, something familiar and appealing.(d) Translation using a loan word of loan word plus explanation(e) Translation by paraphrase using a related word(f) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words(g) Translat
22、ion by omissionIf the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy explanations, translators can often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question.(h) Translation by illustrationThis is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the text has to remain short, concise, and to the point.
