1、Chapter Nine,Measurement and Scaling: Noncomparative Scaling Techniques,Chapter Outline,1) Overview 2) Noncomparative Scaling Techniques 3) Continuous Rating Scale 4) Itemized Rating Scale Likert Scale Semantic Differential Scale Stapel Scale,Chapter Outline,5) Noncomparative Itemized Rating Scale D
2、ecisions Number of Scale Categories Balanced Vs. Unbalanced Scales Odd or Even Number of Categories Forced Vs. Non-forced Scales Nature and Degree of Verbal Description Physical Form or Configuration 6) Multi-item Scales,Chapter Outline,7) Scale Evaluation Measurement Accuracy Reliability Validity R
3、elationship between Reliability and Validity Generalizability 8) Choosing a Scaling Technique 9) Mathematically Derived Scales,Chapter Outline,10) International Marketing Research 11) Ethics in Marketing Research 12) Summary,Noncomparative Scaling Techniques,Respondents evaluate only one object at a
4、 time, and for this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.,Continuous Rating Scale,Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extr
5、eme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the bestVersion 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - -
6、- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Version 3Very bad Neither good Very goodnor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100,RATE: Rapid Analysis and Testing Envi
7、ronment,Itemized Rating Scales,The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being
8、 rated. The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.,Likert Scale,The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. Strongly Disagree Neithe
9、r Agree Strongly disagree agree nor agree disagree1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 52. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 53. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calcu
10、lated. When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.,Semantic Differential Scale,The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic
11、meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful -:-:-:-:-X-:-:-: Weak Unreliable -:-:-:-:-:-X-:-: Reliable Modern -:-:-:-:-:-:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those
12、 with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.,A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and P
13、roduct Concepts,1) Rugged :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Delicate 2) Excitable :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Calm 3) Uncomfortable :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Comfortable 4) Dominating :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Submissive 5) Thrifty :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Indulgent 6) Pleasant :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unpleasant 7) Contemporary :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Obsolete 8) Organized
14、 :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unorganized 9) Rational :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Emotional 10) Youthful :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Mature 11) Formal :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Informal 12) Orthodox :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Liberal 13) Complex :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Simple 14) Colorless :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Colorful 15) Modest :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Vain,Stapel Scale,The S
15、tapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically. SEARS+5 +5+4 +4+3 +3+2 +2X+1 +1 HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE-1 -1-2 -2-3 -3-4X -4-5 -5 The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed
16、 in the same way as semantic differential data.,Basic Noncomparative Scales,Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions,Table 9.21) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories 2) Balanced vs. unbalance
17、d In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data 3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least some respondents, an odd number of categories should be used 4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected
18、 to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced scale 5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible 6) Physical form A number of option
19、s should be tried and the best selected,Balanced and Unbalanced Scales,Rating Scale Configurations,Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations,Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing,Development of a Multi-item Scale,Scale Evaluation,Measurement Accuracy,The true score model provides a framework for unde
20、rstanding the accuracy of measurement. XO = XT + XS + XRwhereXO = the observed score or measurementXT = the true score of the characteristicXS = systematic errorXR = random error,Potential Sources of Error on Measurement,1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the
21、 test score, such as intelligence, social desirability, and education. 2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions, and fatigue. 3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions. 4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, dele
22、tion, or changes in the scale items. 5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves. 6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and poor design. 7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers. 8)
23、 Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis.,Fig. 9.6,Reliability,Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free from random error, XR. If XR = 0, the measure is perfectly reliable. In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical
24、 sets of scale items at two different times and the degree of similarity between the two measurements is determined. In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and the same respondents are measured at two different times, with a different form being used each
25、 time.,Reliability,Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate about the characteristic being measured. In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into two halves and the resulting half sc
26、ores are correlated. The coefficient alpha, or Cronbachs alpha, is the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency r
27、eliability.,Validity,The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random error. Perfect validity requires that there be no measurement error (X
28、O = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0). Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand. Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected (criterion variables) as meaningful
29、 criteria.,Validity,Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other me
30、asures of the same construct. Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ. Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways with measures of different but related c
31、onstructs.,Relationship Between Reliability and Validity,If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable. In this case XO = XT, XR = 0, and XS = 0. If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid, since at a minimum XO = XT + XR. Furthermore, systematic error may also be pres
32、ent, i.e., XS0. Thus, unreliability implies invalidity. If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be perfectly valid, because systematic error may still be present (XO = XT + XS). Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for validity., 2007 Prentice Hall,Chapter Ten,Ques
33、tionnaire & Form Design,Chapter Outline,1) Overview 2) Questionnaire & Observation Forms Questionnaire Definition Objectives of a Questionnaire 3) Questionnaire Design Process 4) Specify the Information Needed 5) Type of Interviewing Method 6) Individual Question Content Is the Question Necessary? A
34、re Several Questions Needed Instead of One?,Chapter Outline,7) Overcoming Inability to Answer Is the Respondent Informed? Can the Respondent Remember? Can the Respondent Articulate? 8) Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer Effort Required of the Respondent Context Legitimate Purpose Sensitive Informati
35、on Increasing the Willingness of Respondents,Chapter Outline,9) Choosing Question Structure Unstructured Question Structured Question 10) Choosing Question Wording Define the Issue Use Ordinary Words Use Unambiguous Words Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions Avoid Implicit Alternatives Avoid Implicit
36、Assumptions Avoid Generalizations & Estimates Dual Statements: Positive & Negative,Chapter Outline,11) Determining the Order of Questions Opening Questions Type of Information Difficult Questions Effect on Subsequent Questions Logical Order 12) Form & Layout 13) Reproduction of the Questionnaire 14)
37、 Pretesting 15) Observation Forms 16) International Marketing Research,Chapter Outline,17) Ethics in Marketing Research 18) Summary,Questionnaire Definition,A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents.,Questionnaire Objectives,It must translate the inf
38、ormation needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents can and will answer. A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview. A questionnaire should minimize response error.,Youth Resea
39、rch Achieves Questionnaire Objectives,Youth Research Achieves Questionnaire Objectives,Youth Research Achieves Questionnaire Objectives,Questionnaire Design Process,Effect of Interviewing Method on Questionnaire Design,Department Store Project Mail Questionnaire Please rank order the following depar
40、tment stores in order of your preference to shop at these stores. Begin by picking out the one store that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred department store and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the stores in order of pr
41、eference. The least preferred store should be assigned a rank of 10. No two stores should receive the same rank number.Store Rank Order1. Parisian _ 2. Macys _ . . 10. Wal-Mart _,Effect of Interviewing Method on Questionnaire Design,Telephone Questionnaire I will read to you the names of some depart
42、ment stores. Please rate them in terms of your preference to shop at these stores. Use a ten-point scale, where 1 denotes not so preferred and 10 denotes greatly preferred. Numbers between 1 and 10 reflect intermediate degrees of preference. Again, please remember that the higher the number, the gre
43、ater the degree of preference. Now, please tell me your preference to shop at .(READ ONE STORE AT A TIME)Store Not So GreatlyPreferred Preferred 1. Parisian 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2. Macys 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . . . 10. Wal-Mart 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,Effect of Interviewing Method on Questionnaire Desig
44、n,Personal Questionnaire (HAND DEPARTMENT STORE CARDS TO THE RESPONDENT). Here is a set of department store names, each written on a separate card. Please examine these cards carefully. (GIVE RESPONDENT TIME). Now, please examine these cards again and pull out that card which has the name of the sto
45、re you like the most, i.e., your most preferred store for shopping. (RECORD THE STORE NAME AND KEEP THIS CARD WITH YOU). Now, please examine the remaining nine cards. Of these remaining nine stores, what is your most preferred store for shopping? (REPEAT THIS PROCEDURE SEQUENTIALLY UNTIL THE RESPOND
46、ENT HAS ONLY ONE CARD LEFT)Store Rank Name of the Store 1. 1 _ 2. 2 _ . 10. 10 _,Effect of Interviewing Method on Questionnaire Design,Electronic Questionnaire This question for e-mail and Internet questionnaires will be very similar to that for the mail questionnaire. In all these methods, the ques
47、tionnaire is self-administered by the respondent.,Individual Question Content Is the Question Necessary?,If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that question should be eliminated.,Individual Question Content Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?,Sometimes, sev
48、eral questions are needed to obtain the required information in an unambiguous manner. Consider the question:“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?” (Incorrect)Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two or more questions are combined into one.To obtain the required information, two distinct questions should be asked: “Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and “Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?” (Correct),
