1、Task 11. Absorption costing OAR= Estimated Production Overhead / Estimated Activity Level，都是 budget 值 *Activity level 可以是 production units,可以是 labor hours，也可是 machine hours 取决于劳动密集，还是机械生产密集 intensive. 实际计算 Cost of sale (COS) 时，Overhead absorbed = OAR x actual activity level Advantage 考点 Disadvantage
2、 Recognize selling prices cover all costs 通过改变生产规模 Manipulate profit Complies with IAS 2 accounting for inventory Based on the assumption that overheads are volume related OAR 由 Estimates计算得，主观偏差 Task 12. Marginal costing Advantage Disadvantage 适合 decision making as it highlights contribution Danger
3、 that products sold on marginal contribution fail to cover fixed costs Fixed cost are treated as period costs Doesnt comply with IAS 2,需要调整报表 Profit depends on sales and efficiency Necessitates analysis of mixed costs between FC and VC 技巧 AC = MC + (Closing Inventory Opening Inventory) x OAR *The ab
4、sorption costing requires subjective judgments.预算估计主观判断太多 *There is often more than one way to allocate the overheads.制造成本分摊可操纵 Task 2. Activitybased costing 考点Traditional absorption costing适用于 考点 Activitybased costing 适用于 One or a few simple and similar products Production has become more complex O
5、verhead costs 占很小比例 proportion Assess product profitability realistically 资源 consumption not driven by volume Larger organizations & the service sector 成本驱动 drive：不同单位，不同 OAR 解题步骤：Cost Pool Cost Drive OAR Absorbed Full Cost 考点 Advantage 考点 Disadvantage More accurate cost/unit.适用绩效 appraisal. Time co
6、nsuming & expensive Control OC by managing cost drivers Limited benefit 当成本和 volume related Profitability analysis to customers或生产线 Multiple cost drivers情况复杂，导致不精确 Better understanding of what drives OC Arbitrary apportionment 任意分配 考点计算题(10.Dec.Q4) Problems when implementing ABC： 耗时 需要上层支持，因为缺乏信息 Pr
7、oject team 运作，成员来自各个部门 IT部门支持 了解成本结构 Costbenefit analysis成本效益分析 Target 3. Target costing Cost plus pricing 传统成本法 Target costing Focus on internal Focus on external Steps of target costing 如何减少 Cost gap Product specifications Selling price Target profit: margin/ ROI Target cost Close the cost gap 1)
8、购买便宜的材料（bulk buying 采购折扣或新供应商） 2) 降低人工成本 3) 提高生产能力，生产效率 4) 以自动化替代人工 automation 5) 减少无用环节 eliminate non value added activities 6) 尽量减少部件数量，或尽可能使用多的标准件 注：不能在质量上妥协 compromise，不得影响质量 考点 Implications of target costing Cost control: 目标成本体系中，价格是首要考量 consideration！ 开发 development 过程中就要考虑成本，而不是后来产生时再考虑。 Perf
9、ormance management: 业绩管理 focus on 确保完成 sales targets 以及提高生产 加工方式 improve production processed to drive down costs ，至少达到目标成本。 考点 Difficulties of using target costing in service industries 基于服务行业的以下 4个特点，服务行业不适用于 target cost Simultaneity 同时性:created at time consumed Heterogeneity 异质性: quality/ consist
10、ency varies Intangibility 无形的: of what is provided Perishability 易腐烂性: cannot make in advance and store up No transfer to ownership 物权不转移 除此以外， 服务行业需要更多的定性的qualitative information来实现价格和评估表现, eg: Quality of service 或 Repeat customers等等 Task 4. Life cycle costing Development 主要： 研发费用 Sales volume: Non
11、e A high level of setup costs Research & development costs Product design and production facilities Introduction 主要： 广告费等 Sales volume: Very low level High marketing and promotion costs High business risk (negative cash flow, very high fixed costs) Growth 主要： 投入设备和广 告 Sales volume: Rapid increase Sa
12、les revenue increase dramatically Marketing and promotion cost will continue through this stage Costs decrease as fixed costs are recovered over greater sales volumes Maturity 主要： 材料人工等 产品区别化来 提高竞争力 Sales volume: Stable high volume Initially profits keep increase as initial setup and fixed costs are
13、 recovered Marketing and distribution economies are achieved Price competition and product differentiation will start to erode profitability as new customers are limited Decline 主要： 退役成本 或改良产品来 延长生命周期 Sales volume: Falling demand Product is phasing out, 经济效益下滑 marketing costs are cut in this stage A
14、 replacement product needs to have been developed(R&D) Extra development costs to refine the model/function to extend life cycle Discommisioning cost 退役成本，产品退出市场 作用：Maximizing return over the product life cycle 产品整个生命周期的投资回报最大化 Design costs out of products 早期设计时考虑了产品 70%+的成本， 从整个生命周期来 看，最大化的降低成本。 Mi
15、nimize the time to market缩短入场时间，尽早占据市场，且竞争对手的产品不多 Maximize the length of the life cycle itself. 将产品可盈利的时间拉长，来增加收益 Minimize breakeven time 尽快达到盈亏平衡点，即尽早收回投资，实现盈利 Manage the products cash flow 管理现金流 Key time periods need to be measured： Time to market Breakeven time after product launch Return factor
16、投资收回后收益Implications 对企业的启示/意义 True costs of product are identified特点：考虑了 R&D，全面考虑了产品盈利性 Price will change according to demand 产品价格随市场需求/竞争情况而调整 Assess profitability over product life not by period 从生命周期看利润情况，而非阶段 考点 Benefits优势： 1. 考虑了预期寿命内的外部因素 external factors 2. 考虑所有成本包括 R&D 费用，进而在设计时就考虑了成本降低问题 3.
17、 非常适用于当前的 competitive environment，现代产品生命周期都较短，大部分费用 a large portion of costs 发生在先期，即研发和产品引进市场阶段。 4. 鼓励长期回报的政策，譬如若产品生命 5 年，这 5 年内全部盈利多少，则有多少奖 励。鼓励工程师和生产经理更多从大局考虑，而非短期的盈利性。 5. 鼓励最大化产品周期内的投资回报 考点计算题：Profitability = total sales revenue total cost，不要忘记 R&D 阶段费用 Task 5. Throughput accounting 生产力 Theory of
18、 constraints (TOC) 限制理论：目的是最大化生产力 throughput。 理论假设 Assumption: Material is the only totally variable cost in the shortterm.短期内只有材料是可变成本 Direct labor costs are not variable in the shortterm. Many employees are usually guaranteed a minimum weekly wage.短期内工资非可变成本，许多员工是固定工资。 TOC 理论 focuses on factors bo
19、ttlenecks which are constraints to this maximization. 补充：概念比较 Bottlenecks management：产能受限于瓶颈资源，分析必须保证该资源充分利用。 1. Identify the binding constraints 确定瓶颈 2. Exploit. 开发，确保瓶颈资源充分利用 3. Subordinate. 协同，其他步骤放慢进度来配合瓶颈资源，关键是不要有 WIP产生。 4. Evaluate the systems bottleneck.评估+提供 increase sources or improve its e
20、fficiency. 5. Return to step 1. 通常，一个瓶颈克服，就会有另一个瓶颈产生。重复步骤提升。 考点计算题(09. June.Q1) 在该理论下，企业的目的是实现 TPAR1，说明 throughputoperation cost，实现盈利。 考点分析 Suggest how a TPAR could be improved 思路：从计算公式着手，1) 分母变大（提高售价，降低材料成本） ，2) 分子变小（降低 生产成本/运营成本）, 3) 提高瓶颈资源的产能 Improve the productivity of the bottleneck 考点计算题(11.Ju
21、ne.Q5) Goldratts 5 setps for multiproducts decision making 1. Identify the bottleneck 确定瓶颈 2. Calculate the throughput per unit for each product 计算每个产品的 throughput/unit 3. Calculate the throughput per unit of the bottleneck resource for each product 计算 throughput/machine hour 4. Rank the products in
22、 the order of the result 分等级，按步骤 3的数值由高到低排名 5. Allocate resources using rank for best production plan. 按照等级分配 bottleneck 资源 Limitations of TPAR 缺点/限制 It concentrates on the shortterm decision making. The bottleneck and labor costs are largely fixed. However, it is not realistic for a business to pro
23、duce on the short term only. 利于短期 决定，其理论假设与现实不符。 It is more difficult to apply throughput accounting concepts to the longer term when all costs are variable. The company should consider this long term view before rejecting products with a TPAR 1. 固定成本长期不可能不变，所以需要从长期来考虑，即时 TPAR1的产 品，有长期战略意义，也要继续生产。所以
24、，不能仅仅从 TPAR 来判断。 补充：概念比较 Traditional costing Throughput accounting Variable cost Material, Labor & VOH Material only Fixed cost FOH + others Labor + Overhead + others Inventory valued at Total production cost Material only Value added When items produced When items sold Product profitability Sell pr
25、ice product cost Rate at money is earned (TPAR) Task 6. Environmental accounting 重要意义 from a clear understanding & effective management of environmentrelated costs 对于某些行业，环境成本 are becoming huge for some companies. 一旦确认了，有助 于控制和降低这部分成本。譬如石油公司 BP。 已逐渐成为 worldwide regulation，譬 如 ISO14001，有些规定需汇报 enviro
26、nment cost Ethical issues 道德认知 企业需要认识到生产对环境的影响(e.g. carbon emissions). Improved brand image 品牌效应 green product can be selling point.卖点，提高声誉 More accurate pricing and improved profitability.考虑环境成本利于精确定价 Contribution of environmental management accounting (EMA)：关注企业和环境互相影响 考点 Defining and accounting f
27、or environmental costs 定义（2种不同定义方式） 1. Hansen and Mendoza(1999) 提出 Environmental prevention costs 预防成本 The costs of activities undertaken to prevent the production of waste. eg. environmental training. Environmental detection costs 发现成本 Costs incurred to ensure that the organisation complies with re
28、gulations and voluntary standards确保企业合规/按标准 eg. record keeping and recording. Environmental internal failure costs 内部失败成本 Costs incurred from performing activities that have produced contaminants and waste that have not been discharged into the environment 还未排入外部环境。 eg. waste disposal costs Environm
29、ental external failure costs 外部失败成本 Costs incurred on activities performed after discharging waste into the environment.已排入外部环境的后续成本，eg.诉讼 2. US Environmental Protection Agency提出 Conventional cost传统成本 Raw material and energy costs 与环境相关的 Potentially hidden costs In general overheads普遍账户里涵盖的，没有单列 Con
30、tingent costs 或有成本 Costs to be incurred at a future date, eg clean up costs Image and relationship costs 为了企业声誉和公共关系而产生的成本，the costs of preparing environmental reports. 环境报告 考点论述题（13.Dec.Q1）4种确认和分配环境成本的方法： Input/ outflow analysis 流入/流出分析 The material inflows are recorded and balanced with outflows.
31、This means what comes in, must go out.差额表示 waste,环境 成本必须从 waste（kg）转化到$（可以以材料成本价来计） Flow cost accounting 1) Material 2) System and delivery 3) Disposal Material flow 在企业中以 3种形态 categories 存在。这 3种 形态下的 value 和 cost 要分别计算。目的是降低 quantity of materials来降低total business costs in the longrun并使其产 生 positive
32、 effect on the environment & business longterm cost 简单来说，合理规划 3种形态的量，来降低成本和排放。 Activitybased costing 用 ABC 方式来处理 environmentrelated costs（原来它是 hidden on general overheads，现在把它找出来） Life cycle costing 需要从设计阶段，就考虑到整个生命周期中，所有对环境有 影响的成本 full environmental consequences Task 7. Breakeven analysis 又称 Costvolumeprofit analysis(CVP)， 公司在盈亏平衡点的利润为$nil。 If sales exceed the breakeven point(该点是一个 sales volume)，公司才能盈利。 理论假设 Assumptions: 以下 3个成本为定值 Selling price per unit Variable cost per unit Total fixed costs 单一产品的breakeven分析： 这里的fixed cost还包括销售成本 （nonproduction cost） Chart 1: Breakeven chart
