1、Prepared by: Fernando Quijano & Shelly Tefft,CASE FAIR OSTER,P R I N C I P L E S O F MACROECONOMICS T E N T H E D I T I O N,CHAPTER OUTLINE,2,The Economic Problem: Scarcity and Choice,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity CostScarcity and Choice in a One-Person EconomyScarcity and Choice in an Economy o
2、f Two or MoreThe Production Possibility FrontierThe Economic ProblemEconomic Systems and the Role of GovernmentCommand EconomiesLaissez-Faire Economies: The Free MarketMixed Systems, Markets, and GovernmentsLooking Ahead, FIGURE 2.1 The Three Basic Questions,Every society has some system or process
3、that transforms its scarce resources into useful goods and services. In doing so, it must decide what gets produced, how it is produced, and to whom it is distributed.,The primary resources that must be allocated are land, labor, and capital.,capital Things that are produced and then used in the pro
4、duction of other goods and services.,factors of production (or factors) The inputs into the process of production. Another term for resources.,production The process that transforms scarce resources into useful goods and services.,inputs or resources Anything provided by nature or previous generatio
5、ns that can be used directly or indirectly to satisfy human wants.,outputs Goods and services of value to households.,Nearly all the same basic decisions that characterize complex economies must also be made in a simple economy.,Scarcity and Choice in a One-Person Economy,Scarcity, Choice, and Oppor
6、tunity Cost,The concepts of constrained choice and scarcity are central to the discipline of economics.,opportunity cost The best alternative that we give up, or forgo, when we make a choice or decision.,Scarcity and Choice in a One-Person Economy,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Opportunity C
7、ost,The growth of the frozen dinner entre market in the last 50 years is a good example of the role of opportunity costs in our lives. Many entrepreneurs find that the simple tools of economicslike the idea of opportunity costshelp them anticipate what products will be profitable for them to produce
8、 in the future.,Frozen Foods and Opportunity Costs,E C O N O M I C S I N P R A C T I C E,theory of comparative advantage Ricardos theory that specialization and free trade will benefit all trading parties, even those that may be “absolutely” more efficient producers.,Scarcity and Choice in an Econom
9、y of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Specialization, Exchange, and Comparative Advantage, FIGURE 2.2 Comparative Advantage and the Gains from Trade,and (b) shows how much output they could produce in a month, assuming they wanted an equal number of logs and bushels. Colleen would
10、split her time 50/50, devoting 15 days to each task and achieving total output of 150 logs and 150 bushels of food. Bill would spend 20 days cutting wood and 10 days gathering food.,In this figure, (a) shows the number of logs and bushels of food that Colleen and Bill can produce for every day spent
11、 at the task,As shown in (c) and (d), by specializing and trading, both Colleen and Bill will be better off. Going from (c) to (d), Colleen trades 100 logs to Bill in exchange for 140 bushels of food.,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,absolute ad
12、vantage A producer has an absolute advantage over another in the production of a good or service if he or she can produce that product using fewer resources.,comparative advantage A producer has a comparative advantage over another in the production of a good or service if he or she can produce that
13、 product at a lower opportunity cost.,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Specialization, Exchange, and Comparative Advantage, FIGURE 2.3a Production Possibilities with No Trade,The figure in (a) shows all of the combinations of logs and bushels of
14、 food that Colleen can produce by herself. If she spends all 30 days each month on logs, she produces 300 logs and no food (point A). If she spends all 30 days on food, she produces 300 bushels of food and no logs (point B). If she spends 15 days on logs and 15 days on food, she produces 150 of each
15、 (point C).,A Graphical Presentation of Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost, FIGURE 2.3b Production Possibilities with No Trade,The figure in (b) shows all of the combinations of logs and bushels of food t
16、hat Bill can produce by himself. If he spends all 30 days each month on logs, he produces 120 logs and no food (point D). If he spends all 30 days on food, he produces 240 bushels of food and no logs (point E). If he spends 20 days on logs and 10 days on food, he produces 80 of each (point F).,A Gra
17、phical Presentation of Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost, FIGURE 2.4 Colleen and Bill Gain from Trade,By specializing and engaging in trade, Colleen and Bill can move beyond their own production possibil
18、ities. If Bill spends all his time producing food, he will produce 240 bushels of food and no logs. If he can trade 140 of his bushels of food to Colleen for 100 logs, he will end up with 100 logs and 100 bushels of food. The figure in (b) shows that he can move from point F to point F. If Colleen s
19、pends 27 days cutting logs and 3 days producing food, she will produce 270 logs and 30 bushels of food. If she can trade 100 of her logs to Bill for 140 bushels of food, she will end up with 170 logs and 170 bushels of food. The figure in (a) shows that she can move from point C to point C.,Scarcity
20、 and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,We trade off present and future benefits in small ways all the time.,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Weighing Present and Expected Future Costs and Benefits,consume
21、r goods Goods produced for present consumption.,investment The process of using resources to produce new capital.,Scarcity and Choice in an Economy of Two or More,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Capital Goods and Consumer Goods,production possibility frontier (ppf) A graph that shows all the
22、combinations of goods and services that can be produced if all of societys resources are used efficiently.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,All points below and to the left of the curve (the shaded area) represent combinations of capital and consumer goods t
23、hat are possible for the society given the resources available and existing technology. Points above and to the right of the curve, such as point G, represent combinations that cannot be reached. If an economy were to end up at point A on the graph, it would be producing no consumer goods at all; al
24、l resources would be used for the production of capital. If an economy were to end up at point B, it would produce only consumer goods.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Although an economy may be operating with full employment of its land, labor, and capital
25、 resources, it may still be operating inside its ppf, at a point such as D. The economy could be using those resources inefficiently. Periods of unemployment also correspond to points inside the ppf, such as point D. Moving onto the frontier from a point such as D means achieving full employment of
26、resources.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost, FIGURE 2.5 Production Possibility Frontier,The ppf illustrates a number of economic concepts. One of the most important is opportunity cost. The opportunity cost of producing more capital goods is fewer consumer g
27、oods. Moving from E to F, the number of capital goods increases from 550 to 800, but the number of consumer goods decreases from 1,300 to 1,100.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,During economic downturns or recessions, industrial plants run at less than thei
28、r total capacity. When there is unemployment of labor and capital, we are not producing all that we can.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Unemployment,Waste and mismanagement are the results of a firm operating below its potential.Sometimes inefficiency resu
29、lts from mismanagement of the economy instead of mismanagement of individual private firms.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Inefficiency, FIGURE 2.6 Inefficiency from Misallocation of Land in Farming,Society can end up inside its ppf at a point such as A by
30、 using its resources inefficiently. If, for example, Ohios climate and soil were best suited for corn production and those of Kansas were best suited for wheat production, a law forcing Kansas farmers to produce corn and Ohio farmers to produce wheat would result in less of both. In such a case, soc
31、iety might be at point A instead of point B.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Inefficiency,To be efficient, an economy must produce what people want.,marginal rate of transformation (MRT) The slope of the production possibility frontier (ppf).,The Production
32、 Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,The Efficient Mix of Output,Negative Slope and Opportunity Cost, FIGURE 2.7 Corn and Wheat Production in Ohio and Kansas,The ppf illustrates that the opportunity cost of corn production increases as we shift resources from wheat production
33、 to corn production. Moving from point E to D, we get an additional 100 million bushels of corn at a cost of 50 million bushels of wheat.,Moving from point B to A, we get only 50 million bushels of corn at a cost of 100 million bushels of wheat. The cost per bushel of corn measured in lost wheat has
34、 increased.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,The Law of Increasing Opportunity Cost,economic growth An increase in the total output of an economy. It occurs when a society acquires new resources or when it learns to produce more using existing resources.,The
35、 Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Economic Growth,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Economic Growth, FIGURE 2.8 Economic Growth Shifts the PPF Up and to the Right,Productivity increases have enhanced the ability of the Un
36、ited States to produce both corn and wheat. As Table 2.2 shows, productivity increases were more dramatic for corn than for wheat. Thus, the shifts in the ppf were not parallel.Note: The ppf also shifts if the amount of land or labor in corn and wheat production changes. Although we emphasize produc
37、tivity increases here, the actual shifts between years were due in part to land and labor changes.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Economic Growth, FIGURE 2.9 Capital Goods and Growth in Poor and Rich Countries,Rich countries find it easier than poor countr
38、ies to devote resources to the production of capital, and the more resources that flow into capital production, the faster the rate of economic growth. Thus, the gap between poor and rich countries has grown over time.,The Production Possibility Frontier,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,Source
39、s of Growth and the Dilemma of Poor Countries,In all societies, for all people, resources are limited relative to peoples demands. In 1990, the World Bank defined the extremely poor people of the world as those earning less than $1 a day. Even for the poorest consumers, however, biological need is n
40、ot all determining. In societies with very few entertainment outlets, we may see more demand for festivals, indicating that even in extremely poor societies, household choice plays a role.,Trade-Offs among the Rich and Poor,E C O N O M I C S I N P R A C T I C E,Recall the three basic questions facin
41、g all economic systems:(1) What gets produced?(2) How is it produced?(3) Who gets it?Given scarce resources, how do large, complex societies go about answering the three basic economic questions?,The Economic Problem,Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost,command economy An economy in which a centra
42、l government either directly or indirectly sets output targets, incomes, and prices.,Command Economies,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,laissez-faire economy Literally from the French: “allow them to do.” An economy in which individual people and firms pursue their own self-interest witho
43、ut any central direction or regulation.,market The institution through which buyers and sellers interact and engage in exchange.,Some markets are simple and others are complex, but they all involve buyers and sellers engaging in exchange. The behavior of buyers and sellers in a laissez-faire economy
44、 determines what gets produced, how it is produced, and who gets it.,Laissez-Faire Economies: The Free Market,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,consumer sovereignty The idea that consumers ultimately dictate what will be produced (or not produced) by choosing what to purchase (and what not
45、 to purchase).,Laissez-Faire Economies: The Free Market,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,Consumer Sovereignty,free enterprise The freedom of individuals to start and operate private businesses in search of profits.,Laissez-Faire Economies: The Free Market,Economic Systems and the Role of
46、Government,Individual Production Decisions: Free Enterprise,The amount that any one household gets depends on its income and wealth. Income is the amount that a household earns each year. It comes in a number of forms: wages, salaries, interest, and the like.Wealth is the amount that households have
47、 accumulated out of past income through saving or inheritance.,Laissez-Faire Economies: The Free Market,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,Distribution of Output,In a free market system, the basic economic questions are answered without the help of a central government plan or directives. T
48、his is what the “free” in free market meansthe system is left to operate on its own with no outside interference. Individuals pursuing their own self-interest will go into business and produce the products and services that people want. Other individuals will decide whether to acquire skills; whethe
49、r to work; and whether to buy, sell, invest, or save the income that they earn. The basic coordinating mechanism is price.,Laissez-Faire Economies: The Free Market,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,Price Theory,The differences between command economies and laissez-faire economies in their
50、pure forms are enormous. In fact, these pure forms do not exist in the world; all real systems are in some sense “mixed.”,Mixed Systems, Markets, and Governments,Economic Systems and the Role of Government,This chapter described the economic problem in broad terms. We outlined the questions that all economic systems must answer. We also discussed very broadly the two kinds of economic systems. In the next chapter, we analyze the way market systems work.,
