1、文体学复习1、 Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most (or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language. (有许多种，此为 in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P52、 Stylistics: is a branch of linguistics which studies in a scient
2、ific and systematic way concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）The development of stylisticsThe scope of studyThree c
3、rucial aspects of speech: Substances sounds and symbols; Form; Situation3、 Stylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text (what is peculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text wi
4、th that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature.
5、Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: Whats your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. Im a physician.Policeman: Whats your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin. The word boy may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physicia
6、n, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as Dr. So-and-so (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form boy, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.4、 Linguistic description: refers to the exploration and classification of li
7、nguistic features of a given text.每个 category 下面的各个分类(1) The Phonology Category: Phonology here is used to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language.(2) The Lexical Category: Lexis is used here to refer to the choice of words.(3) The Syntactic/Grammatical /Category: Syntax is used here to r
8、efer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences.(4) Semantic Category: Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee.Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically thr
9、ough the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature. 3) Assess the importance of stylistic features. 4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringi
10、ng together diverse features to show how they form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.5、 （1）Text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a uni
11、fied whole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning. A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. Cohesive devices: Implicit connectivityExplicit connectivity1) Transitional words/phrases2) Grammatical deviceEllipsis Subs
12、titution Coreference3) Lexical reiteration材料 Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is. B: Im in pyjamas. A: OK. Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of Bs remark to
13、 As first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “Im in pyjamas” implies an excuse for not complying with As command (= “No, I cant, because Im in pyjamas.”) As second remark implies that he accepts Bs excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= OK. Ill go myself an
14、d see.” Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.（2）Context: Context refers to all elements of a communicative situation. (One is “linguistic context”, referring to t
15、he linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. The other is “extra-linguistic context” or “context of situation”, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. )Contextual factors:Field of discourse(语场 )：the institutional set
16、ting, private or public, in which a piece of language occurs, embracing not only the subject matter in hand(正在进行中的主要的事情), but the whole activity of the speaker or participant in a setting, which corresponds to Hallidays “ideational function” of language.Tenor(语旨 )：The participants, their education,
17、social status, the role-relationship between the addresser and the addressee; the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance. (Its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning -the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their relative status, their attitude, and th
18、eir role relations.)Mode(语式)：the medium of communicationthe graphic signs visual or sound waves auditory by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to anther; Channel; channel limitation; other detailed choices, the functions of language in the particular situation.Practice 4. Analyze t
19、he following conversation(Jenny comes to Alans house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Wont you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: Im Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)Alan: Oh wont you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?(After some minut
20、es of talk, which is omitted here)Jenny: Mr. Marlow Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name
21、 and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny choose
22、s to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as “Mr. Marlow”. Linguistic Items6、Speech sounds:(1) Stress: Stress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is the result of extra force used in pronouncing a particular word or syllable. a) To show emphasis; b) To show surprise, anger, doubt, horror
23、or excitement; c) To distinguish meaning of identical words or phrases. P23(2) Pause: Pause refers to the brief interruption of the articulatory process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, words, phrases and sentences. a) voiced pause or filled pause; b) silent pauseFunct
24、ion: P23(3) Pitch: This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener is called “pitch” and to indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence, or hatred. a) The falling pitch; b) The rising pitch; c) The fall-rise pitch; d) The
25、rise-fall pitch; e) The level pitch; f) The fall-plus-rise pitch. (各用在什么情境下，有什么作用 P2425) (4) Tempo: Tempo refers to the speed of speaking. Tempo reflected in monosyllables: a) quick and clipped syllables; b) loose and drawled syllables; c) slow and held syllables. Tempo reflected in sentences: a) th
26、e quick “allegro”; b) the slow “lendo”; c) the increasing “accelerando”; d) the decreasing “rallentando”.Function: Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis, disagreement, hesitation
27、, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.7、Graphological Items the study of writing system of a languageGraphological levelthe expression or realization of language in its writing system(1) Punctuation ( the dash 破折号, the colon 冒号, the exclamation mark 感叹号) ；各自用处效果(2) Capitalization(3
28、) Italics 斜体(4) Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.各自用处效果8、Lexical Items(1) General or Specific(2) Anglo-Saxon or Latinate(3) Other Lexical Items9、Syn
29、tactic/Grammatical Items(1) Clause TypesClause: A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 b
30、asic types:2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause: Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase is a finite form. E.g. He finished his work before leaving the classroom. Nonfinite clauses（非限定从句） are clauses whose verb phrase is non-finite, e.g.
31、 an ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom. Verbless clauses（无动词分句） are clauses which contain no verb element, e.g.: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.3) In terms of functions in a sentence:Independent clause, not subordinate to another clau
32、se. E.g. I am a teacher. Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause.a) nominal clause（名词性从句） e.g. What he said is true.b) relative clause（关系从句） functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.E.g. People who smoke an
33、noy me.c) comparative clause, than, as d) adverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.(2) Sentence TypesSentence: A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.1) In terms of complexity or the n
34、umber of constituent clauses: Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.a) Compound sentence（复合句）consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses. E.g.: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.b) Complex se
35、ntence（复杂句） consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause, e.g.: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet. c) Compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, one being compound, and at least one complex dependent clause, e.g.:Although the storm
36、 is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk.2) In terms of grammaticality: Major sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,e.g.: Oh, i
37、f I were you!All aboard!3) In terms of function:Declarative sentence （陈述句）Interrogative sentence（疑问句）a) General questionb) Special questionc) Alternative questiond) Disjunctive question（反义疑问句）Imperative sentence （命令、祈使、要求）Exclamatory sentence（感叹句）4) In terms of sentence length:Short sentence（casual,
38、 easy, informal, emphatic, eye-catching, to the point, effective, express a concept） long sentence 5) In terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis: Periodic sentence（圆周句） is a sentence which suspends the completion of the main thought until(near) the end, e.g.:Every time a Cooper person is in per
39、il, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast completes the main thought well before the end. Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each of about the same length and importance, e.g.:In Platos opinion man w
40、as made for philosophy; in Bacons opinion philosophy was made for man.(beautiful in form, impressive in meaning; formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)10、British/American EnglishBritish English范围：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain; The Irish Republic； Australia；New Zealand；Sout
41、h Africa；The West Indian IslandESL： Singapore；MalaysiaThree periods: Old English, Middle English, Modern EnglishAmerican English范围：EFL：（mother tongue）The United States of America; CanadaESL： Mexico；The Philippines; Samoa（萨摩亚）History of AmE:Differences between BrE and their situations are more compac
42、t and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing. b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the
43、same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode. c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with n
44、o relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read. d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and
45、 the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard). （3） Electronic English (E-Discourse): Electronic English is a general term, and it is used to here to refer to the computer-mediated English, which can also be labeled by other nam
46、es through slight differences exist. Nature of Electronic English: E-English is interactive, electronic, communicative in nature, with the text presented on the screen. Stylistic features: a) Lexicallyb) Syntactically12、Formal or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to
47、the audience. an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal.9.4 Martin Joos classification(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality: 5 levels: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.The frozen level: In Joos analysis, the frozen level is us
48、ed for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speech
49、es where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in May I present Mr Smith ?). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particula
