1、Second Language Acquisition An Introductory Course,Susan Gass & Larry Selinker,Chapter 1 Introduction1. Review: (1) What is SSLA ?the study of how second languages are learned, including the processes and constraints underlying the learning of a second language by children and adults in natural and
2、classroom instruction settings.,(2) What is the goal of SSLA ?The ultimate objective of SSLA isexploring the change of learnersinternal mental state, i.e.,competence, revealing about thenature of the human mind andintelligence by examining theirperformance.,(3). What is the scope of SSLA ?- how lear
3、ners create a new language system with limited input- what is learned and what is not,-why most L2 learners do not reach the same degree of proficiency in the L2 as in their L1.- why only some learners can achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language.,- the nature of learners hypotheses
4、 of the rules of the L2: are the rules formed like those in the L1 or in the L2?- are there universal patternscommon to all learnersregardless of the native language and the target language,- Do the rules created by second language learners vary according to the context of use?,(4). Areas of study t
5、hat are relevant to SLA-linguistics -psychology -psycholinguisitics -sociology -sociolinguistics,-discourse analysis - conversational analysis - education and others.,2. Examples of SSLA research2.1 题目: 词汇量、词汇深度知识与语言综合能力关系研究 （变量关系）（1）研究问题： -词汇量、词汇深度知识在多大程度上能够预测语言综合能力及分项语言能力？-词汇量的扩大是否引起词汇深度知识的增长？对不同词
6、汇量的学习者，词汇广度与深度知识的关系是否相同？,（2）定义：-词汇深度：学习者掌握一个词的全部意义和用法的程度-词汇广度（词汇量）：阅读词汇量或消极词汇量，反映的是了解一个词最常用含义的能力。,（3）结论：词汇广度、深度知识均能有效预测语言综合能力，其中词汇深度知识对语言综合能力的预测力强于词汇广度知识，这一优势体现在对完形填空及写作的预测中；总体上，词汇广度与深度知识呈高度正相关，但词汇深度知识的发展仍落后与词汇广度知识。,2.2 题目: 中国学生西班牙语元音发音中迁移现象实验研究(1) 研究问题:以元音格局分析为基础,考察第一外语为英语的中国学生在学习西班牙语元音过程中受到的汉语和英语的
7、迁移作用, 探讨在第二外语学习中母语和第一外语的影响.,（2）结论：语言迁移现象可分为正迁移、负迁移和零迁移。母语和第一外语对第二外语的元音发音都存在着迁移作用。一般说来，母语比第一外语的迁移作用更大，即先习得的语言比后习得的语言的迁移作用更大。,2.3 题目: 中国英语学习者对英语主语的习得研究(1) 研究问题: （a）中国英语学习者在习得英语标记性主语和非标记性主语方面是否存在差异？（b）不同的标记性主语是否对中国英语学习者产生不同的难度？,（C）中国英语学习者对英语主语的习得是否会随着水平的提高而逐步增长？(2) 主语分类(a) 名词/代词做主语 (非标记主语)他是我们班班长。李明喜欢赵
8、晶。,(b) 不定式作主语To keep healthy means you should do exercise regularly. (c ) 现在分词作主语Smoking is harmful. (d) 从句作主语That he cheated on the exam disappointed his teachers and his classmates. (e) It 或 There作主语It is raining. There is a picture on the wall.,(3) 结论:中国英语学习者对非标记性主语的习得明显好于对标记性主语的习得，并且三个水平组对这两类主语的
9、习得存在显著性差异，也就是说随着学习者英语水平的提高他们会对标记性主语的习得更容易。另外，从他们给出的判断原因来看，他们对非标记性主语更加熟悉。学习者对四种标记性主语的习得存在不同的程度困难。总的来说，中国英语学习者对英语主语的习得会随着水平的提高而提高。,3. Some terms 3.1 Native language (NL):the first or mother language a child learns.3.2 Target language (TL):the language being learned 3.3 Second language acquisition:the
10、learning of a nonnative,language after the learning of the native language be it the second, third, or fourth language.3.4 foreign language learning:the learning of a nonnative language in the non-target language environment.,4. The nature of languageTo study second language acquisition, we need to
11、understand what is the nature of language that is being learned.4.1 Sound systemour knowledge of sound system tells us what are possible sounds ; what are not possible sounds,what are possible combinations of sounds and what sounds are found in what parts of words.e.g: bnick is not possiblebrain is
12、possible,45.2 syntaxthe knowledge we have of the order of elements in a sentence.Two types of grammar 4.2.1 prescriptive grammargrammar rules that are taughtin school, often without regardto how they are actually used byNNS.,e.g. Dont begin a sentence with a conjunction and do not end a sentence wit
13、h a preposition.4.2.2 descriptive grammar:the patterns underlying the actual use of languages by native speakers in communication,4.3 morphology and lexiconmorphology is the study of the word formation. E.g., before is composed of be and fore, and these two parts are called morphemes, which are the
14、minimal unit of meaning.,4.4 semanticsthe study of meaning.4.5 pragmaticsthe way in which people uselanguage in contextA: It is very cold here.B: Yes, it is Do you want me to turn on the air-conditioner?,5. The nature of nonnative speaker knowledgethe language system created by L2 learners is called
15、 interlanguage (IL), which contain elements from the L1, the L2 and those created by learners themselves.,Fossilization:the cessation of learning or progress.few learners can reach the proficiency level of the native speakers in language learning.,6. discussion: 6.1 What is the difference between SL
16、A research and language teaching research?,- The focus of pedagogy research:the lesson planning, classroom activities, tasks, evaluation used by the teacher within the language teaching and learning process. -SLA is concerned with the constraints that influence language learning process.,6.2 student
17、 presentation(1) Q1 and Q2 on P13(2)Q4 on P14,Chapter 2 Capacity and Representation,1. IntroductionWhat are the relationships between error analysis theory, interlanguage and generative linguistic approach to interlanguage?,1.1 Error analysis,The field of EA is closely associated with the work of Co
18、rder, who published a number of seminal articles in the 1960s/1970s. EA provided a methodology for investigating learner language.,For this reason EA constituted the first serious attempt to examine how learners acquire an L2.,1.2 definition of interlanguage:,The very concept of error came to be cha
19、llenged on the grounds that learners act systematically in accordance with the mental grammar they have constructed and that their utterances are well-formed in terms of these grammars,The term interlanguage was coined by Selinker in 1972. L2 learners have internalized a mental grammar, a natural la
20、nguage system that can be described in terms of linguistic rules and principles.,It refers to both the internal system that a learner has constructed at a single point in time (a interlanguage) and to the series of interconnected systems that characterize the learners progress over time.,Answer to t
21、he question:Error analysis interlanguage generative linguistic approach to L2 learning,Early interlanguage theory was informed by the research that investigated learners errors and the general pattern of L2 development. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it was pointed out that the language,of secon
22、d language learners is systematic and that learner errors are not random mistakes but evidence of rule-governed behavior (Adjemian, 1976; Corder, 1967; Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972). From this developed the conception of “interlanguage”.,The generative linguistic approach towards interlanguage repre
23、sentation is based on the concept of interlanguage.,2. Hypotheses of UG2.1 The logical problem of L1 acquisition (the problem of the poverty of stimulus) Linguists believe that the gap between the evidence available to the child (the speech she hears or language input),and the linguistic system the
24、child ultimately constructs (her competence/grammar) is so great that language acquisition can only be accounted for if we assume that children work with innate knowledge of principles of grammar.,Input (stimulus),Output (competence,UG,e.g., OPC principle on Page 20,2.2 The central idea of principle
25、s and parameters is that a persons syntactic knowledge can be modelled with two formal mechanisms:,(1) A finite set of fundamental principles that are common to all languages; e.g., that a sentence must always have a subject, even if it is not overtly pronounced.,(2) A finite set of parameters that
26、determine syntactic variability amongst languages; e.g., a binary parameter that determines whether or not the subject of a sentence must be overtly pronounced (the Pro-drop parameter).,Within this framework, the goal of linguistics is to identify all of the principles and parameters that are univer
27、sal to human language. As such,any attempt to explain the syntax of a particular language using a principle or parameter is cross-examined with the evidence available in other languages.,According to this framework, principles and parameters are part of a genetically innate universal grammar (UG) wh
28、ich all humans possess, barring any genetic disorders.,As such, principles and parameters do not need to be learned by exposure to language. Rather, exposure to language merely triggers the parameters to adopt the correct setting.,(1) Have you had your lunch?（你）吃午饭了吗？Yes, I have.（我）吃了。 (2) I am not
29、going to take the medicine anymore.药不吃了。,3 Issues of concern to generative linguistic approach to SLA (1) What are the roles of UG in SLA? (Does UG constrain interlanguage representation?) (2) To what extent are interlanguage grammars similar to other grammars?,4. People assume that there is a logic
30、al problem in L1 acquisition, i.e., there is a mismatch between the input that the L1 learners are exposed to and the unconscious grammar knowledge that they attain. Does this apply to L2 learning?,4.1 how to determine whether there is poverty of L2 input, two conditions must be met: (1) the phenome
31、non in question is underdetermined by the L2 input, i.e., the language is not exposed to learners,(2) the phenomenon in question works differently in the L1 and the L2: the language is not learned via L1,5. What role does UG play in SLA? (HB, P 23) (1) no access: The leanrers Core Grammar is fixed a
32、nd UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to the adult learner.,(2) partial access: UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UG influence.,(3) full access: UG operates in the same way for
33、 L2 as it does for L1. The learners knowledge of L1 is irrelevant.,Common goal of the three stances: Whether UG constrains interlanguage representation in the same way as it restricts the grammars of native speakers.,Question for discussion: In testing whether UG restricts interlanguage representati
34、on, researchers often compare whether the grammar of L2 learners conforms to that of the native speakers. Are there any weaknesses in this research method?,(1) The presupposition is that the final state of learner grammar should converge to the grammar of native speakers. However, interlanguage is a
35、 continuum, an ongoing process, and there are few L2 learners that can reach the competence level of native speakers.,The fact that L2 learners have not reached the competence level of native speakers does not necessarily mean that UG is not available.,Researchers adopted a dichotomy between UG and
36、the L1. However, since the L1 is a natural language which is subject to UG constraints,one cannot be justified to assume that L2 learners grammar competence that is based on the L1 implies lack of UG constraints.,Section 3The Radical Middle: Nativism without Universal Grammar,Question for Ss: what i
37、s the similarity and difference between Grammatical Nativism and General Nativism?,Similarity: Children are born with an “acquisition device”-an innate system that both directs and supplements learners interaction with experience,Difference:General (special) nativism: The innate mechanism is specifi
38、cally grammatical in nature, containing actual grammatical categories and principles.,LAD is an autonomous system of grammatical categories and principles-autonomous in the sense that it is not reducible to non-linguistic notions and grammatical in the sense that it is primarily concerned with matters of well-formedness, not parsing or processing or other types of language-related cognition.,Difference,General nativism:LAD does not include grammatical principles and categories; the entire grammar system is the product of the interaction of the acquisition device with experience.,
