1、Part 6 Societal Multilingualism 探讨多语社会的民族情感、政治、历史等各有关 因素和多语混用、洋泾浜英语和双语能力等表现形式,Multilingualism,the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation E.g some countries of West African, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel,Mul
2、tilingual,a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Usually, a multilingual does not know all the language equally well. e.g. one language at home, one at work, and one for shopping; use each language for different communicative purposes, e.g. one language for talking about science, one f
3、or religious purposes, and one for personal feelings.,Reasons for Multilingualism,Three, namely migration, conquest and intermarriage. As bilingualism, multilingualism tends to exist in many domains. People tend to use different languages in different domains,The number of languages spoken in newly
4、formed multilingual society may reduce after a long period of assimilation. Take the US, the melting pot as it is commonly called, as example.,Historically,multilingual communities evolve in a number of ways. a) the involuntary movements (p. 52 in Middle East) b) voluntary migration (e.g. in the USA
5、), c) migration from the countryside or from the small towns to the large metropolitan cities; d) the conquest and the subsequent incorporation into a single unit (e.g. Russian empire); e) colonial policies;,Results of Multilingualism,1 Language contact: the situation where two or more languages are
6、 brought into contact by bilingualism 2 language conflict: situation where two or more languages compete for status,3 language maintainace: a situation where speakers continue to use language even when there is a new language available 4 language shift :changes in the degree of functional use from o
7、ne language to another,总得来说，散杂区的人比聚居区的人更容出现语言转用现象；在城镇、交通发达的地区的人比在牧区、山区交通不便的地区更容易出现；年轻人比老年人更容易出现；男人尤其经常外出的男人比女性更容易出现；文化程度较高的人比文化程度较低的人更容易等。 语言转用必然会经历双语阶段，才会自然过渡不出现中断。,Language loyalty and reversing language shift,Endangered Language: language that is no longer being passed on to children as a native
8、language, but is spoken by a contracting and aging group of adults.,当两种语言接触，产生了互相的影响，必然产生“强势语言”与“弱势语言”。 在语言竞争中，“弱势语言”由于种种原因越来越弱，最极端的发展 逐步走向濒危，甚至消失。,把濒危语言资料保存下来并加以研究，可以解释许多活着发展中语言没有的特征，研究它，可以丰富我们的语言理论。,据人类学杂志世界语言状况的估计：世界语言6760种中，使用人口在10万人以下的有4611种，占总数的70%。,在21世纪，使用人口在10万以下的语言有可能消失。也就是说，世界语言中的三分之二有可能会
9、消失。虽然这是一种估计，但当前大量语言濒危的趋势确实存在。,联合国教科文组织将1993年定为“濒危语言年”。1995年以来，该组织已经先后在日本、西班牙、法国等国召开了关于濒危语言问题的国际会议。,因为任何一种语言的消失，都是人类社会的损失，人类文化的损失。 语言的消失不只是语言有无的问题，还关系到民族感情、心理。,例1：濒危的土家语土家族分布在我国的湖南、湖北、四川、贵州等省，人口超过570万。土家语面临濒危，目前会说土家语的人的数量还不到总人口的 3 % 。,例2： 满语的衰亡，经历了300多年。现在我国900万的满族人，绝大部分都已转用汉语，只有黑龙江省爱辉县和富裕县的少数满族还不同程度
10、地会说满语。,满语走向濒危，虽然有政治、经济、文化等多种原因，但起主要作用的是分布的变化：相对聚居杂居,1644年，清军入关，大批满人进入内地，分散在汉族的居住地，与汉族生活在一起。加上满族贵族顺应历史潮流，大力提倡学习汉语文，在文化上、语言上受汉族影响，渐渐满族人转用了汉语文。,语言濒危是语言发展的事实，不以人的意志为转移的。联合国教科文组织提出濒危语言的九个标准：两代人之间的语言继承；语言使用者的绝对人数；使用语言的人在整个人口的所占比例；等等；何俊芳出四个关键项：语言使用的人数减少；语言使用者平均年龄升高；语言使用的范围缩小；语言的结构系统退化；,在中国各族人民使用的种语言中，有二十多种
11、语言的使用人口不足一千人，有的已经消亡有的濒临消亡； Barbara Grimes and Joseph Grimes(2001年)统计资料：世界上使用人数只有人的语言有种，不足的有种，其中使用人数在之间的有种；人之间的有；不到人使用的有种，这些中种语言只有一人使用。,爱切生（）：“一种语言的死亡，并不是因为一个人类社会忘记了怎么说话，而是因为政治或社会原因。另一种语言把原有的一种语言驱逐出去成了主要语言。”,language loyalty: retention of a language by its speakers, who are usually in a minority in a
12、 country where another language is the dominant language.e.g. some immigrants in the USA, such Estonians, have show a high degree of language loyalty.,Groups of those who keep their languages: 1) those who chose to isolate themselves both linguistically and culturally from the mainstream. (p.55) 2)
13、those who were segregated and isolated by the outside society; e.g. indigenous Native Americans and the various Spanish-speakers;,Language shift,a change from the use of one language to the use of another language. This often occurs when people migrate to another country where main language is diffe
14、rent. E.g. immigrants to the USA and Australia from non-English speaking countries.,E.G.满族入关后，由于受到汉族文化的影响，首先是从汉语中吸收不少文化词，而随着清政府的大力倡导，汉族文化影响日益扩大，满语的社会功能退化，最终产生语言转化。汉藏语系中许多语言受到佛教的影响，吸收了大量佛教词汇。“佛”，“塔”，“菩萨”，“罗汉”，“比丘”，“轮回”，“僧”，“苦海”，“刹那”等。,Language shift,1 may be actively encouraged by official government
15、 policy, for example, by restricting the number of language used as media of instruction. 2 may also occur because another language, usually the main language of the region, is needed for employment opportunities and wider communication.,Reversing language shift,efforts by a group to resist language
16、 loss (a process by which speakers of a language slowly stop using it, resulting in its dying out).,Revitalization,the restoration to language vitality. E.g. in Ottoman Palestine, the revitalization of Hebrew by Zionists (犹太复国主义者). Vitality means intergenerational transmission (the language is learn
17、ed as a mother tongue.),Language and ethnic identity,Language is one of the most significant identifying features of ethnic group.,Language and politics,1) Language is regularly used in the exercises of political power. 2) There are subtle uses of language in politics. (p. 58),Language Rights,To tak
18、e an ethnic view of language contact and conflict. There are two approaches: 1 puts emphasis on the right of language; E.g. to preserve, in a grammar, dictionary, and collection of texts, as much of the language as possible while there is still one speaker alive; to provide support to the speakers o
19、f the language in their efforts at reversing language shift.,2 to focus on the rights of the speakers of language. A) The first is the right to learn the national language, and to be assisted in dealing with that situation where lack of control of it leads to serious handicaps. B) The second is not
20、to be discriminated against (in access to work, education, and justice or health service),on the basis of being identified as a member of a group of speaking another language or variety. C) The third is the right to preserve and maintain their own favored language or variety, and to work to reverse
21、any language shift to the status or prestige variety.,Pidgins and creoles,Pidgin is a simplified language derived from two or more languages. It is a contact language developed and used by people who do not share a common language in a given geographical area. A pidgin is learned only in peoples con
22、tact,皮钦语 （Pidgin，又译“洋泾浜语”）是17世纪以后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸常见的一种语言接触现象。,（1） 概况,主要出现在广州、香港、上海等口岸城市。 使用者主要是英美商人在中国的雇员或佣人，以及与他们有商贸往来的中国商人。,（2） 上海的洋泾浜英语,老上海苏州河的一条支流 1845年英租界在上海建立以后，它成为租界和华界的分界线。 沿岸也成了上海最繁华的地段，是英语和汉语语言接触最频繁的地方。,Last car叫做“拉司卡”One dollar叫做“温淘箩”,“康姆” come “狗” go “也司” yes “糯” no “佛立谷” “吞的福” “蒲脱” “靴”,ve
23、ry good twenty four靴叫“蒲脱”(boot)，鞋叫“靴”(shoe)。,“拿摩温”先生是阿大(number one)，“翘梯翘梯”（吃tea吃tea）请吃茶，自家兄弟“勃拉茶”(brother)，爷要“发茶”(father)娘“卖茶”(mother)丈人叫做“发音落”(father-in-law),洋泾浜英语语句：,My go topside. He have go bottomside. Afternoon my come. 标准英语： I am going upstair. He has gone downstair. Ill come in the afternoon.
24、,（3） 皮钦语的特点,皮钦语的语音经过当地语言音系的改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，带有本地语法的痕迹。,皮钦语是当地人没有学好殖民者的语言，是殖民者语言在异域的有限交际范围内使用的一种特殊变体。 所以它一般不被看作正式的语言。 皮钦语不作为母语传授给下一代。,二、混合语（克里奥耳语， Crole ）,1、克里奥耳语（crole，混血儿，又叫混合语）：指在语言接触中出现的一种可能被社会采用为主要的交际工具，并由孩子们作为母语来学习的语言现象。 它包含有不同的语言成分。如洋泾浜语言在一定的条件下可能被社会作为主要的交际工具，这时洋泾浜语言就变成了混合语。,2、洋泾浜和克里奥耳语的共同点和区别,洋
25、泾浜和克里奥耳语都是语言接触的一些特殊形式。 它们的特点可以概括为：一种语言远渡重洋，立足异域，或作为特殊语言使用于有限的范围，或者在那里落户生根。在这个过程中，它必定和当地语言产生密切的关系，吸收对方的一些成分，放弃自身的一些特点，结果在基本保持原有素质的条件下使自己增加一种变体。,Pidgin and Creole A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes
26、such as trading. When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.,Some examples of Pidgin English,Tok Pisin: Mi driman long kilim wanpela snek. (I dreamed that I
27、 killed a snake.) Cameroonian Pidgin English: Gif dif buj fo me. (Give the book to me.),三、国际辅助语,从17世纪起，不断有人设计国际辅助语的方案，比较成功的是波兰医生柴门霍夫在1887年创造的“世界语”（Esperanto）。这种语言兼采欧洲各种语言的词汇材料和语法格局，加以简化划一，可以说是欧洲各大语言的一个合理化的公分母，也可以说是一种人造的洋泾浜。它模拟自然语言，简单易学，因而问世以后，受到广泛的欢迎。不过，世界语毕竟是一种人造的国际辅助语，它不能代替自然语言作为人们的母语或第一语言。,Langua
28、ge of wider communication,The language chosen by speakers of several different languages to communicate with each other.,Creolization,The process by which a pidgin becomes a creole;Involves the expansion of the vocabulary and grammar system;E.g. Haitian Creole, Tok Pisin, Hawaiian Creole English (p.
29、62),a post-creole continuum.,A third stage of development when speakers of a creole or pidgin are introduced, usually by education, to the standard language on which language the creole or pidgin was originally based,E.g.,in Jamaica and Guyana, an English-based creole is spoken and standard English
30、is taught in schools. Those with higher levels of education speak something close to Standard English, the acrolect （高层语）; Those with little or no education speak the creole or something close to it, the basilect（低层语); The rest speak a rang of varieties in between, the mesolects（中层语）.,One controvers
31、y is about the speech of Afro-Americans. E.g. Black English, Afro-American Vernacular English, or Ebonics has raged in American educational situations for at least thirsty years,Diglossia,introduced by Ferguson a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism, usually describes a situation in whi
32、ch two very different varieties of language coexist in a speech community, each with a distinct rang of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon,H-variety and L-variety,a more standard variety called high variety of H-variety, which is use
33、d in more formal of serious matters (the medium, school or church).a non-prestige variety called low variety or L-variety, which is used in colloquial and other informal situations (conversations with family or friends, or instructions given to servants, waiters or workman).,E.g.,1 In China there wa
34、s a period of time when a high, classical form called 文言文and a low, spoken form called 白话文 co-existed.2 Country High variety Low variety Greece Katharevusa Demotic Switzerland Standard German Swiss German Haiti Standard French French Creole,Speaker switches between the standard language and a non-st
35、andard vernacular or regional dialect is a common linguistic situation within a monolingual community and can hardly count as diglossia.,语言接触对语言的影响,汉语的借词： 全音译；咖啡，沙发(sofa)，坦克(tank)，雷达(radar)，吉普(jeep)，等; 2 半音译词，) 在后面加指类名词，如啤酒(beer)，摩托车(motor)，霓虹灯(neon)，保龄球(bowling)，爵士乐(jazz)，鲨鱼(shark)，等；)一半音译一半意译；如冰激凌
36、(ice-cream)，迷你群(miniskirt)，呼啦圈(Hulahoop)，新德里(New Deli)，剑桥(Cambridge)等，,意译词 足球(football)，鸡尾酒会(cock tail party)，软件(soft ware)，热狗(hot dog)，超级市场(supermarket)等；现代汉语的趋势拒绝音译； 如：“德谟克拉西”该为“民主”，“怀娥铃（violin）”改为“小提琴”，“披雅哪”改为“钢琴”，“爱斯不难懂(Esperanto)” 改为“世界语”，“罗漫楴克（romantic）”改为“浪漫”.,（1）汉代从西域借入的有：葡萄、石榴、菠萝、狮子、玻璃（2）元代从蒙古语中借入的有：蘑菇、胡同、站（驿站）,在汉语中，外来词由来已久：,（3）汉以后从印度借入的有：佛、菩萨、罗汉、阎罗、和尚、金刚、现在、过去、未来、世界、圆满、烦恼、因果、因缘、报应、刹那、境界、宿命、天女散花、七级浮屠、昙花一现、神通广大,（4）从日本借入的有：企业、干部、标本、经验、见习、下水道、心理学、写真集、榻榻米、生产力、便当、达人等。 手机达人、DIY达人“达人”在日语中有“学问、技术等精通的人”的义项。,（5）从欧美借入的有：法语的“沙龙”（salon）、“芭蕾”（ballet）等。意大利语的“披萨”（pizza）等。,
