1、1. Synthetic: characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships.2. Analytic: characterized by a relatively frequent use of function word, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms.3. 表达
2、语法关系三大手段：morphologic change(形态变化) ，word order, function word(虚词)4. 英汉表达方法的差异：英语有形态变化，汉语无。(英语 conjugation, declension, affixation, 有严格规则，汉语悟性思维)英语语序灵活，汉语相对固定。 （英语语序倒置现象：结构性，功能性，汉语功能性居多；汉语定语在名词前，英语定语灵活；英语充分利用三大语法手段，straight line, deductive, genera-to-specific,汉语 circular line, inductive）英汉都有大量虚词，各有特点（
3、英语常使用定/不定冠词；汉语常使用助词；英常用介词，汉少用；英用并列从属的连接词）英语是语调语言（intonation）,汉声调语言（tone） （intonation, stress,汉音节匀称，成双成对）5. Hypotactic(形合) ：the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives.英语常用6. Paratactic（意合） : the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives sh
4、owing the relation between them.汉语常用7. Parataxis refers to the situation where the connection between words or clauses is realized by meaning or the logical relation; while hypotaxis refers to the situation where the connection is realized by means of linguistic form.8. 英语的形合法：relatives and conjunct
5、ions; prepositions; other means of connection; inflection(internal form, additive form, external form)作者责任型语言 writer-responsible9. 汉语意合法：word order; repetition, parallelism, contrast; contracted sentences; four-character pattern; 读者责任型 reader-responsible10. 关于形合，意合和文体：英语形合句多，汉语意合句多，数量与文体密切相关；书面语形合句比
6、口语多；现代汉语形合句比古汉语多；现代庄重文体科技文体论述文体形合句多。11. 英语 impersonal, 汉语 personal: 英语非人称主语 inanimate subject/it：preparatory, unspecified, emphatic,汉语人称主语；英语常用被动式，非人称表达法 impersonal passive,汉语主动式，人称泛称隐称表达法。 英客体意识，汉主体意识12. Euphemism(委婉语): a mild or vague or periphrastic expression as a substitute for blunt precision
7、or disagreeable truth. Vagueness is the soul of euphemism. (official/ occupational/educational/other fields: poverty, death, age, looks, physical defeats )13. Implicitness(含蓄)：汉语倾向于直截了当(敬辞，谦辞，婉言，委婉语 )，英语常低调陈述（understatement: make big things seem trifle）, 间接肯定（litotes: using a negative to emphasize t
8、he contrary）委婉否定（indirect negation）,婉转暗示（tactful implication: leave gaps in the development of a thought）14. Periphrasis（迂回）：the use of long or many words, phrases, or unclear expressions when short simple ones are all that is needed.15. 替换 substitution(an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one
9、 that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. nominal/verbal/clausal) 省略 ellipsis 变换 variation 常用于英语，重复 repetition,重叠 reduplication 对偶 antithesis 排比 parallelism 常用于汉语。16. Language: a tool for human communication, system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication, a means to express and ex
10、change thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as well as to fix and transmit experience and knowledge, the vehicle for cultural information, which refers to the experience and knowledge, used to understand and describe the world, naming things, classifying things, describing the relation bet
11、ween things.17. Culture: what a society does and thinks, the ideas and the standards they have in common which binds men together, a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographical areas, the total way o
12、f life of particular group of people.18. 五大需求：1) The physiological needs. 2) The safety needs. 3) The belongingness needs. 4) The esteem needs. 5) The self-actualization needs19. Categories of culture：Substantial/ System /Behavior /Psychoculture20. Nida E. A(尤金 奈达): 1) Ecological culture2) Material
13、culture3) Social culture 4) Religious culture5) linguistic culture21. External: Behaviors-language, gestures, customs; Products-literature, folklore, arts, music, artifacts Internal: ideas beliefs, values, morals22. Features of culture: Only human beings have culture(Culture is social heritage, not
14、physiological heredity.); Culture is learned, not born with; Most part of culture is covert; Culture is the guide to peoples behaviors; Culture is subject to change.23. Innovation: the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of the culture eventually accept and that may prod
15、uce slight changes in social habits and behaviors.24. Diffusion: the borrowing by one culture from another. It is part of cultural contact.扩散25. Acculturation: It occurs when a society undergoes drastic culture change under the influence of a more dominant culture and society with which it has come
16、in contact.文化适应26. Culture is ethnocentric: non-natural，non-individual，non-innate，regional and trans-regional，epochal and trans-epochal27. Layers of culture: beliefs, values, behaviors, products or symbols28. The relationship between language and culture: Language is a part of culture, influenced an
17、d conditioned by culture, influences culture.29. Language and thinking: Language helps thinking, influenced and restrained by thinking, influences and restrains thinking.30. Perception is the means by which we make sense of the physical and social world, the process of selecting, organizing, and int
18、erpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world.31. Hofstedes Value dimensions: IndividualismCollectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, Masculinity and Femininity.32. Strodtbecks Orientations: Human Nature Orientation, Relationship of Humankind to Nature, Time Or
19、ientation, Relational Orientation33. Worldview: Western(linear division, one dividing into two, independence and opposition) Chinese(circular enclosure, two combining into one, interdependence and integration)34. Core Values: Western(Linear individuality, individualism-oriented and right-based, deve
20、loping individual potentials, realizing individual objectives, seeking individual interests) Chinese(circular integrity, collectivism-oriented and duty-based, harmonizing community relationships, actualizing community objectives, safeguarding community interests.)35. Individualism: Everybody taking
21、care of himself, “I” consciousness, Independence from organizations, Emphasis on individual initiative, Privacy important, Belief in individual decisions36. Collectivism: People protected by families or clans, “We” consciousness, Dependence on organizations, Emphasis on affiliation with organization
22、s, Sharing important, Belief in community decisions37. The features of Chinese characters: The gap between written and spoken forms, Writing as an art, Musical feature38. Form: All aspects of language are tied in some way or other to words, which have two aspects, their forms and their meanings. For
23、m concerns the way an expression sounds (for spoken language) or looks (for written or signed language) or how an expression is produced.39. The relation between form and meaning: For every form of unit in a language, there is some meaning associated with it, such as the meaning of words, phrases an
24、d sentences.40. The meaning of a word: Dictionary definition, Mental image, Referent, Contextual meaning41. The features of word meanings: The stability and changeability of word meanings, Two types of word meanings(conceptual / literal / denotative meaning,extended / associative meaning)42. The pri
25、nciple of modern linguistics: non-motivation43. Types of motivation: phonological 音韵学的 morphological 形态学的 semantic 语义学的44. Difference in motivation of Chinese attitude towards foreign words45. Cause of motivation difference: natural environment, economic factor46. Language and reality: phonological
26、level, lexical level, structural level47. Distance iconicity 距离象似性: If the meaning of form A affects the meaning of form B, then, the CLOSER form A is to form B, the STRONGER will be the effect of the meaning of A on the meaning of B.48. Criterion: the smallest sound unit that can be used to differe
27、ntiate the meaning of words49. Difference in stress：word stress，Sentence stress（Grammatical stress，Logical stress）50. Difference in juncture：Words as the context（Linguistic context: Situational context: Cultural context）Background knowledge as the context（Subjective context）51. Subject: nouns, prono
28、uns, etc. which is most closely related to verbs in forming a sentence. the concern of the message，something is being predicated，doer of the action52. Predicate: The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the subject.53. Psychological Subject is the part that is the concern of the message.
29、 It was called psychological because it was the departure in the speakers mind to start the production of the clause.54. Grammatical subject meant that of which something is predicated. It was called Grammatical because at that time the construction of Subject and Predicate was thought of as a purel
30、y formal grammatical relationship; it was seen to determine various other grammatical features but not thought to express any particular meaning.55. Logical Subject meant doer of the action. it had to do with relations between things while grammatical relations were relations between symbols.56. Top
31、ic: the initial word of a clause(broad sense); that which is predicated(narrow sense)57. Markedness: concerned with the distinction between what is neutral, natural and expected and what departs from the neutral along some parameter.58. Unmarked elements: exhibits the following characteristics: they
32、 are expressed by simpler means, they occur more frequently in the languages of the world, they are learned earlier in first language acquisition.59. 整体思维: 事物总体把握 归纳 强调群体 重悟性 善形象思维 诗人的气质 宇宙是一个整体 中医60. 个体思维: 条分缕析 演绎 强调个体 重理性 善逻辑思维 科学家的头脑 宇宙像原子 西医61. 林同济 ：汉语特点是动词优势,英语特点是关系词丰富62. 郭绍虞：西方语法以动词为重点, 汉语以名词为
33、重点。郭说反映了历史上和理论上的正确性，林说反映了现实上的正确性。63. Rhetoric：the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the capability of writer or speakers to inform, persuade or motivate particular audience in specific situations.( metaphor, simile, euphemism, implicitness)64. Metaphor: an implied comparison between two
34、things of unlike nature that yet have something in common. A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another.( Source ,pattern ,function)65. Conventional implicature: In uttering a sentence S, a speaker implies that P is the case if S suggests P as its conclusion, without P havi
35、ng been literally said.66. When an implicature rests not only on the conventional meaning of the uttered expression but also on the supposition that the speaker is following or is intentionally breaking certain maxims of conversation, then the implication is called a conversational implicature. It i
36、s something you dont say directly but that you seem to want people to believe. It is what the utterance expresses beyond the literal meaning.67. The Cooperative Principle and its Maxims: The maxim of Quantity(make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchang
37、e; do not make your contribution more informative than is required) The maxim of Quality(Try to make your contribution one that is true: do not say what you believe to be false, do not say that which you lack adequate evidence) The maxim of Relevance(Make your contribution relevant to the topic) The
38、 maxim of Manner(avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)68. CP, PR, PP and Cultural Difference:Principle of relevance: communication, inference, manifestness, assumption, politeness principle: Tact Maxim, Generosity Maxim, Approbation Maxim, Modesty Maxim, Agreement Maxim f. Sympathy
39、 Maxim.69. 英：hypotactic, impersonal, substitutive, linear division, independence and opposition, intonation language, stress-timed, concord, verb-centered, subject focused, verb-moving, end-weight, logical, straight line, deductive,理性，距离意识70. 汉：paratactic, personal, repetitive, circular enclosure, interdependence and integration, tone language, syllable-timed, non-concord, topic-focused, non-end-weight, imagery, circular line, inductive,悟性，参与意识
