1、Word-FormationAbstract : A further way besides borrowing in which the vocabulary of English has expanded to accommodate to the natural and social world in which it is used has been to employ means internal to the language itself for devising new word. This is the area of word-formation. Morphologica
2、l productivity can be defined as the property of a given word formation process to be used to derive a new word in a systematic fashion. Most linguists divide the word-formation into major word-formation and minor word-formation .The major word-formational processes are :- Affixation - Compounding-
3、ConversionThe minor word-formational processes are :- Abbreviation- Back formation- OnomatopoeiaKey Word : affixation, derivative, compounding, abbreviation, onomatopoeia1 AffixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or a
4、suffix. It is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases . There are two types of derivative . One bases on free root with affix or bound root , the other bases on bound with affix or other bound root .1.1 Types of affixes- prefixes- suffix
5、es2- infixesModern English has a number of highly productive affixes. For example, the prefix over can be added to verbs which express activities to indicate that too much has taken place, i.e. something has been overdone, cf. overcook, overcoat, overstay. Likewise, the suffix ness can be added to a
6、n adjective make a noun designating the quality express by the adjective, its nouniness, so to speak.1.2 Two types of derivatives structure1.2.1 Free root + affix/bound root1) prefix + free roote.g.: Indefinite (a. uncertain), unforgettable (a. memorable) , minibus (coach)2) free + suffixe.g. : weal
7、thy (a. rich) , successful (a, achieving aims) , extremely (adv, to a very high de.g.ree) , comfortably (adv. in a comfortable way)3) prefix +free root + suffixe.g. : enrichment (a. sb/sth being rich or richer) , international (a. connected with two or more countries) , unchangeable (a. that can not
8、 be changed)4) combining form + free roote.g. Afro-American , Afro-Asian , techno-chemistry , microwave1.2.2 Bound root + affix/bound root1) prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. contradict (v. to say sb has said is wrong) , descend (v. go down) , despair (v. give up all hope)2) bound root (wi
9、thout formation)+ suffixe.g. confidence (n. trust in) , liberate (v. emancipation) , linguist (n. a person who knows several foreign languages well)3) prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. distinctive (a. special ) , intolerable (a. cant bear) , contradiction 3(n. a lack of agreement between f
10、acts)4) combining form + combining forme.g. macrobiosis (n. long life) , microscope (n. an instrument used in scientific study for making very small thing look larger)2 CompoundingComposition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, that
11、is, a compound. Compounding is perhaps the most common way of expanding the vocabulary of English. It allows users to combine two familiar words to form a new lexeme.Very often compounds are written as two words, which means that they are accepted into dictionaries a little reluctantly. Certainly, d
12、ictionaries seem not to list compounds in anything like the numbers in which they are in use. This may be justified perhaps because compounds are frequently transparent and their meanings are relatively accessible without a dictionary. Furthermore, many of them do not become lexicalized, but have a
13、very transitory life.According to the words characteristic, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives , compound pronouns , compound verbs , compound adverbs , etc .2.1 Compound Nounsn. + n.: bar code , mouse mat , Websitea. + n.: blueprint , compact discadv. + n.: off chance , overdose , underc
14、lothes-ing + n.: learning strate.g.y , marketing campaign , parking metern. + v.: daybreak , earthquake , parking meteradv + n : downfall , income , offset , output , upliftv. + adv.: get-together , handout , makeupn. + -ing: air-conditioning , brainstorming , family planningprep.+n.: afternoon , by
15、-product , overcoat2.2 Compound Adjectives4As adjective is a core : airsick , band-new ; dark-blue , icy-cold ; all-mighty , evergreen , overripeAs noun is a core : blue-collar , present-day ; breaknecl , cross-country ; chicken-hearted , dog-eared , wine-coloredAs ing or ed is a core : energy-savin
16、g , epoch-marking ; easy-going , far-reaching ; mass-produced , poverty-stricken ; absent-minded , half-done , newly-built2.3 Compound Verbs1) Formed by back-formation : house-keep from housekeeperwindowshop from window-shopping henpeck from henpecked2) Formed by conversion : to blue-printto cold-sh
17、oulderto honeymoon3) adv. + v. : cross-questionoffset overthrow3 ConversionConversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. In other words, conversion or zero derivation is a t
18、ype word class change without the addition, removal ,or change of any element in the word. In this process a noun maybe used as a verb or a verb can be used as a noun. Furthermore, a noun can be used attributively as an adjective. The most frequent type of conversion is from noun to verb, probably b
19、ecause there are so relatively few verbalizing affixes in English.3.1 n. v.1) to put in/on, such as, bottle(n.)to bottle(=to put into a bottle)2) to give, to provide with, such as, butter(n.) to butter(=to spread butter on)3) to deprive of, such as, skin(n.) to skin(=to remove the skin from)54) towi
20、th, such as, hammer(n.) to hammer(=to strike with a hammer)5) to be/act as with respect to, such as, ape(n) to ape(=to imitate like a ape)6) to make/changeinto, such as, fool(n.) to fool(=to make a fool of)7) to send/go by, such as, bicycle(n.) to bicycle(=to go by bicycle)3.2 adj. v.bare(adj.) to b
21、are, calm(adj.) to clam, brave(adj.) to brave3.3 v. n.Verb converting into noun express the verbs original action or condition mostly, such as, attempt, look, swim, smile, walk, etc.3.4 adj. n.Most adjective can be used as noun, such as, an American, an Canadian, etc. There are three type of convers
22、ion, full conversion, partial conversion and special conversion.3.5 n. adj.a brick garage (The garage is brick.)a cotton dress (The dress is cotton.)a gold watch, an iron box, the job market4 ShorteningAbbreviation or shortening is the way of shortening or simplifying syllables to make new words. Th
23、ere are various forms of abbreviation, but main forms are four: clipped word, initialism, acronym, blend. 4.1 ClippingsSpeakers of English have a great tendency to shorten words. This term refers to the process by which a word of two or more syllables is shortened without a change in its function ta
24、king place. It includes apocope, aphaeresis, front and back clipping, and syncope.1) Apocope approx. approximately, auto automobile62) Aphaeresisburger hamburger, bus omnibus3) Front and back clippingsThe shortening may occur at the start and the end of the word. e.g., flu(=influenza) / fridge(=refr
25、igerator) / tec(=detective) 4) Syncopefluidics fluidonics, fossilation fossilizationContractions which is the clipping word with punctuation also can be regarded as this type.4.2 Initialisms and AcronymsInitialisms are words from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of lett
26、ers e.g., EEC. Acronyms are also formed from the initial letters of words, but are pronounced as a word, e.g. radar(radio detecting and ranging). Acronyms have always been an integral part of computer culture, and they have since spawned a new language on the Internet. Commonly thought of as a serie
27、s of letters that make up a “word” there is a distinction between acronyms and shorthand.4.3 BlendsBlends are words formed by combining the first element of the first word and the last element of the second word. Blends are created originally for comic effect. Following are some examples:Chunnel(=ch
28、annel + tunnel) / brunch(=breakfast + lunch) / motel(=motorist+hotel)5 Back-formationBack-formation is the process of word-building by which elements are subtracted from a complex word.e.g. beggar-beg burglar-burgleThe majority of backformed words are verbs. There are two types of syntactic relation
29、 in verb compounds formed by backformation:1) Object + verb as sightsee (from sight-seeing) meaning somebody sees sights. Similar examples are: globe-trot(from globe-trotter or globe-7trotting).2) Adverbial + verb, as spring-clean (from spring-cleaning) meaning somebody cleans in the spring.Back-for
30、mations of all kinds are more frequently found in informal than in formal language.6 OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word-formation which imitate the sound. Imitative words are words formed by imitation of sound. Imitative words divide into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.The barking o
31、f a dog.The crack of a whip.The roll of thunder.The tinkling of bells.There are three types of words formed by imitation of sound:1) The repetition of words: quack; ticktack2) The repetition of words with a vowel change: clitter-clatter; ping-pong; tick-tack.3) Repeating one or more syllables with a consonant change : rub-a-dubt; ran-danReference: Wang Rongpei, Wang Zhijiang, An Advanced Reader of English Lexicology, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006汪榕培， 王之江， 英语词汇学 ，上海外语教育出版社，2006
