1、1.TG:transformational grammar:has seen five stages of development.the classical theory aims to make linguistics a science.the standard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory.the extended standard theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal gramma
2、r.the revised extended standard theory(or GB)focuses discussion on government and binding.the lastest is the minimalist program,a further revision of the previous theory.the development of TG grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powe
3、rs.although it has involved putting forward,revising,its aims and purposes have been consistent,to explore the nature,origin and the uses of human knowledge of language. 2.PS rules:a grammar is seen as a system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences,and the rules must meet the fo
4、llowing requirements:(1)generative:the rules must automatically generate sentences;(2)simple:the rules must be represented by symbols and formulae; (3)explicit:everything must be stated precisely,leaving nothing to chance; (4)exhaustive:the rules should cover all linguistic facts,leaving nothing unc
5、overed;(5)recursive:the rules can be repeatedly applied so as to generate an infinite number of sentences.this is phrase structure grammar.3.Language culture and society:it has long been recognized that language is an essential and important part of a given culture and that the impact of culture upo
6、n a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.language is an indispensable carrier of culture.culture finds a better representation througe language use.a joint study of these two subjects will definitely broaden the horizon of human knowledge in general and enrich the research of thes
7、e sciences in particular.firth :context of situation;sapir-whorf hypotheses language and society:metaphorically,language is regarded as a mirror of society,through which we can understand social activities of a certain society better.functionally,society provides language with a suitable context of
8、use,in which we can enjoy aspects of language vividly and truthfully.with the occurrence of sociolinguistics ,the relationships between the two has been emphasized.4.Some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context :class;gender;age;ethnic identity;educati
9、on background;occupation and religious belief.5.Sociolinguistics contribute to language:1,sociolinguistics has contribute to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching;2,it has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom;3,it has contributed to a fresh
10、 look at the nature of language development and use;4,it has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.6.Cross-cultural communication:intra-cultural communication is not an easy job if some basic rules are not followed.we need to know some basic principles :1,Rogers:tripartite model for
11、successful communication(1)(2)(3);basic guidelines:1,successful communication occurs when the hearer can see,feel,and understand issues from the speakers point of view;2,successful communication occurs when the speaker and hearer know each other s intention ;3,.occurs when the two parties adopt a dy
12、namic dialogue pattern.principles:1,when in Rome do as the Romans do(linguistic forms are different from one language to another.semantic selections vary across separate language systems.one thing you can conveniently say in a language may not be so in another language.this difference makes cross-cu
13、ltural communication not an easy job to deal with.for example,greeting expressions.when two British people meet,they may greet each other by saying something about the weather. Wile when two chinese people meet,they may greet in this way:“where are you going?“or “have you eaten?“for most westerners,
14、these lines sound far too personal or private,if not nosy.2,put yourself in others shoes(successful communication in a cross-cultural setting depends much on a sensible interpretation and prediction of what the other party will think ,feel,and behave when some crucial things occur.3,one cultures mea
15、t is another cultures poison(proverbs epitomize the essence of culture and the value system of society. A cross-linguistic survey of proverbial expressions will capture another point of interest:how do people from different cultures look at their relationships with animals? A ready example is found
16、in English“love me ,love my dog“. An equivalent in chinese will be “love me ,love my bird“.these two proverbs reveal different attitudes English and Chinese speakers cherish toward these pets. This disparity ,if not cautioned,will invite unpleasantness in society. An expression is likely to take on
17、different social significance,goos or bad,friendly or hostile,depending on a very important sociolinguistic rule of communication:who speaks what,to whom,when,where,and for what purpose(fishman).similarly, correct interpretation and smooth communication rely on a group of relevant factors.the implic
18、ation the speaker wants to convey is one,the social relationships between interlocuters become another and a specific setting where communication takes place constituents a third.if these pre-conditional requirements are not met,it will produce compliant,unpleasantness and misunderstanding in a new
19、cultural context.7.What are the three important points of the Prague School? First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretical barrier is erected to separate diachronic study
20、. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. No element of any language can be satisfactorily analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks f
21、or the community using it.8. How do you understand Chomskys Language Acquisition device: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child com
22、es into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with the knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical r
23、elations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The categories and relations exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them. According to him, the study of language, or the structure of language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This
24、 approach to language is a reaction against behaviourism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology. 9.Three objectives to teach culture in our language class:1,to get the students familiar with cultural differences;2,to help the students transcend their ow
25、n culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;3,to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. 1. Philosophers use connotation to mean the properties of the entity a word denotes.2. In the middle of 1960s,
26、 William Labov, a famous sociolinguist, conducted a rather meticulous survey at several departments in the City of New York.to examine the relationship between the speakers social status and their phonological variations. 3. Applied linguistics serves as a mediating area which interprets the results
27、 of linguistic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and learner.4. Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.5. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonol
28、ogy and the distinction between phonetics and phonology.Saussurestructuralism Roman Jacobson.distinctive features P.Grice.Theory of conversational implicature; cooperative principle John Lanoshaw Austin.speech act theory Chomsky.TG,LAD(language acquisition device) G.Leech7 types of meaning in Radfor
29、d.MOP HjemslevParadigmatic relations Katz and Fodor.an integrated theory(compositionality) Firththeory of context of situation;prosodic or analysis phonology M.A.K Halliday.SF(systemic-functional grammar) Lakoff.You are what you say Rogerstripartite model J.Firbascommunicative dynamisn Franz Boas.American structuralism
