1、有关专家证人制度的两篇86 Denv. U. L. Rev. 1199Denver University Law Review2009Survey*1199 PACE v. SWERDLOW: can expert witnesses face liability for changingtheir minds? the tenth circuit weighs in on the element of proximate cause in a claim of expert negligenceMichael T. Nelson FNa1Copyright 2009 Denver Unive
2、rsity Law Review, University of Denver (ColoradoSeminary) Sturm College of Law; Michael T. NelsonIntroductionExpert witnesses are a necessary component of the legal system because many claims involve technical facts that would be beyond the understanding of judges and juries without expert testimony
3、. FN1 Expert witnesses are also pervasive throughout the legal system. FN2 For example, a “recent survey of California civil jury trials determined that at least one expert testified in eighty-six percent of all cases, with two or more opposing experts testifying in fifty-seven percent of the trials
4、.“ FN3 Courts, motivated by a desire to obtain objective expert testimony, have historically held experts immune from liability based on their activities as experts. FN4 However, expert negligence has increasingly become a problem. FN5 Thus, courts have recently begun to erode expert immunity and al
5、low claims against experts for alleged negligence-this trend is particularly true regarding so-called “friendly“ experts (experts subjected to suits instigated by the same party that retained them). FN6Liability for friendly expert negligence is sometimes referred to as the “Pottery Barn Rule“: you
6、break it, you buy it. FN7 However, it remains unclear what exactly a friendly expert must do to “break“ a case. This is because friendly expert negligence is a relatively nascent cause-of-action whose precedent is still “developing, unsettled, lacking in uniformity, *1200 and, in many jurisdictions,
7、 nonexistent.“ FN8 Consequently, there is little consensus regarding the elemental requirements necessary to establish a claim for friendly expert negligence. FN9 However, synthesis of the minor amount of existing case law reveals that such a claim is generally based upon principles of professional
8、negligence, tort liability, and breach of contract. FN10Generally, to establish a prima facie claim of friendly expert negligence the plaintiff must allege: (1) that the plaintiff was a person to whom the expert owed a duty of care or with whom there was privity, (2) the applicable standard of care
9、or contract for services, (3) that the witness breached the standard of care or breached the contract, (4) that the conduct of the defendant in failing to use the appropriate standard of care or in breaching the contract was a proximate cause of the injury or damage of which the plaintiff complains
10、(injury or damage in the context of friendly expert negligence most often occurs in the form of an adverse result at a hearing or trial for the party that retained the expert), and (5) that witness immunity does not apply to the facts and circumstances of the case in the plaintiffs jurisdiction. FN1
11、1Of the elements, proximate cause is one of the most difficult to establish. FN12 Much of the difficulty surrounding proximate cause arises out of the discrepancy between the legally prescribed role of experts as objective translators of technical facts, and the actual (or at least perceived) role o
12、f many friendly experts as advocates for the party that retained them. FN13 While plaintiffs may feel it is the duty of their well-paid friendly experts to testify in an expected manner and to effectively persuade on their behalf, no liability exists for friendly experts who simply fail to “deliver“
13、 an expected opinion, or to persuade a judge or jury. FN14 Thus, for *1201 each claim of friendly expert negligence, a court must inquire as to whether the alleged negligence arises out of the experts objective or contractual duties, or whether the complaint stems merely from the experts effectivene
14、ss as an advocate. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals engaged in this type of inquiry in the recent case of Pace v. Swerdlow. FN15In Pace, the Tenth Circuit held that a change of opinion by a friendly expert, on the eve of a summary judgment hearing, was not, as a matter of law, insufficient evidenc
15、e of proximate cause in a negligence claim against the expert. FN16 The Tenth Circuit reached its decision in Pace, in part, because facts existed to suggest that the experts change of opinion was ill-timed and grounded in fear and intimidation rather than compelling new evidence that had come to li
16、ght. FN17Part I of this Comment provides a broad look at the issues and significant cases involving expert witness liability and immunity. Part II recounts the Tenth Circuits decision in Pace. Part III analyzes Pace and offers guidance for future courts in analyzing causation in claims of friendly e
17、xpert negligence involving a change of opinion by the expert.I. BackgroundA. History and Expansion of the Doctrine of Expert ImmunityThe Tenth Circuit avoided directly addressing the issue of expert immunity in Pace. Nonetheless, many of the policy implications underlying expert immunity permeate th
18、e majority opinion in Pace, as well as Judge Gorsuchs partial concurrence and partial dissent. Thus, a brief review of the doctrine of expert immunity is beneficial before evaluating Pace.Expert immunity was born out of general witness immunity. FN18 The touchstone authority concerning witness immun
19、ity is the U.S. Supreme Courts decision in Briscoe v. LaHue. FN19 In Briscoe, the Court granted absolute immunity to fact witnesses in criminal trials-even in the event of perjury. FN20 In general, state and federal courts have interpreted Briscoe broadly and have expanded immunity to include additi
20、onal witness categories*1202 such as: fact witnesses for their pretrial statements, expert witnesses against suits instigated by the adverse party (“hostile“ experts), expert witnesses appointed by the court, and expert witnesses retained by all parties. FN21The rationale underlying the expansion of
21、 immunity generally consists of two major policy considerations: (1) that imposing witness liability may result in witness self-censorship, which in turn could threaten the fact-finding (and truth-finding) abilities of judges and juries, and (2) that witness testimony already contains sufficient che
22、cks in the form of the oath to tell the truth, the threat of perjury, the oversight of the trial judge, and, perhaps most importantly, the process of cross-examination. FN22 However, despite these policy considerations, granting witness immunity, particularly expert immunity, is not without problems
23、. The next subsection details some of these problems.B. The Problem of “Hired Guns“In addition to immunity, experts are additionally protected by the general absence of any binding standards regulating the quality or truthfulness of their testimony. FN23 As a result, expert witnesses are often regar
24、ded as “mercenaries, hired guns, or as witnesses whose opinions are for sale to the highest bidder,“ FN24 and their testimony is often viewed with distrust by judges and juries. FN25 Skepticism surrounding expert testimony also stems from the economic reality that experts, unlike ordinary witnesses,
25、 are engaged in a voluntary-and often very lucrative-commercial undertaking where market forces influence the type of testimony provided. FN26 Professor Jeffrey Harrison summarizes the problem as follows:Unlike virtually any other business, expert witnesses are not typically held accountable in eith
26、er tort or contract law for their commercial activities. This means that many are inclined to deliver what the market demands-partisan, biased, or plainly dishonest testimony-without concern for the costs this testimony may impose on others. *1203 This immunity from the internalization of the social
27、 cost of their testimony is hard to reconcile with any moral or economic standard. FN27The combination of immunity and minimal regulation has resulted in a lack of quality-control regarding expert testimony. Additionally, many experts are expected-and paid-to be persuasive advocates for the party th
28、at retains them. FN28 Indeed, empirical studies confirm that attorneys shop for experts who are good salespersons as well as technically proficient. FN29 In response to this problem, many courts have begun to erode-or at least refuse to expand-expert immunity. FN30 This is especially true regarding
29、friendly experts because courts, in general, have found the underlying policy arguments for shielding friendly experts less persuasive than those for shielding hostile experts. FN31C. Reluctance to Expand Immunity to Friendly ExpertsSix years after Briscoe, in Bruce v. Byrne-Stevens (2) prior case l
30、aw suggests that witness immunity exists to protect adverse witnesses from suit by opposing parties after a lawsuit ends, not to protect ones own experts; (3) a claim against a friendly expert is analogous to a malpractice claim against a partys attorney after a lawsuit, therefore, if witness immuni
31、ty applied in its broadest interpretation, attorneys would also be shielded, a notion that no court would embrace; and (4) many of the judicial systems guarantees of truthful testimony (e.g. cross-examination) only logically apply to hostile witnesses. FN35*1204 II. Pace v. Swerdlow FN36A. Facts and
32、 Procedural HistoryAngie Putnam died following her breast augmentation surgery at the Intermountain Health Center (“IHC“) in Salt Lake City, Utah. FN37 After Putnams death, her parents and heirs, Thomas A. Pace and Karol Pace, filed a medical malpractice suit in Utah state court against Putnams doct
33、ors. FN38 The principal defendant in the suit was Putnams attending anesthesiologist, Dr. Steven Shuput. FN39 Dr. Shuput discharged Putnam after her surgery despite allegations that “she was having difficulty breathing and was experiencing pain of nine on a scale of ten.“ FN40 Putnam died the night
34、of her release; the exact cause of her death was never determined. FN41Dr. Barry N. Swerdlow, a licensed anesthesiologist, contacted the Paces lawyer and offered his services as an expert witness. FN42 The Paces retained Swerdlow as their expert and provided him with Putnams medical records. FN43 Af
35、ter reviewing the records, Swerdlows opinion was recorded in an affidavit, which stated that “based upon a reasonable degree of medical certainty, Dr. Shuput and IHC Surgical Center did breach the appropriate standard of care when releasing Angela Putnam under the circumstances . . . .“ FN44 Further
36、, Swerdlow suggested that instead of being discharged, Putnam should have been transferred to a nearby hospital for overnight observation, and that pursuant to a reasonable degree of medical certainty, “if she had been monitored overnight, it is very likely that she would be alive today.“ FN45 The a
37、ffidavit also concluded that “as a direct and proximate result of her premature discharge, Putnam died.“ FN46After recording Swerdlows affidavit, the Paces lawyer wrote a letter to Swerdlow requesting that he review Dr. Shuputs written discovery responses which detailed Dr. Shuputs reasons for disch
38、arging Putnam. FN47 Swerdlow did not ask to alter his own affidavit after reviewing Dr. Shuputs*1205 comments. FN48 In addition, the Paces lawyer also provided Swerdlow with a copy of Dr. Shuputs deposition transcript. FN49Despite his strong support for the Paces claim in his affidavit, Swerdlow was
39、 not a strong witness for the Paces at his deposition by Dr. Shuputs counsel. FN50 When asked whether he felt it was ethical to testify against another anesthesiologist without first reviewing that persons deposition, Swerdlow responded, “I think it would have been good for me to have seen it, and I
40、 did not ask for it. I did not think to ask for it. And I wouldnt comment upon the ethics thereof.“ FN51 Swerdlow also stated that he had never testified in trial, and that he was “a relative novice at this whole thing.“ FN52 As to causation, Swerdlow testified that he could not say within a reasona
41、ble degree of medical certainty that Putnam would be alive if she had been hospitalized, only that she would have had an increased probability of survival. FN53 Swerdlow concluded that his “ultimate opinion here is that discharging this patient with severity of pain, as documented in the PACU Post A
42、nesthesia Care Unit record, was not something that a prudent physician in Dr. Shuputs situation should have done.“ FN54 However, Swerdlow also admitted that “Dr. Shuput was not required under the standard of care to read Putnams pain score,“ and that if Dr. Shuput “was reassured that Putnams pain wa
43、s moderate, reasonable, then he doesnt need to look at her pain score,“ FN55 and “would not have breached the standard of care“ FN56 if he felt Putnam was not at that level of pain severity.Following his deposition, Swerdlow called the Paces lawyer and complained that Dr. Shuputs counsel was “mean“
44、and had threatened to report him to the American Society of Anesthesiologists. FN57 Swerdlow also stated that “he did not want problems with his license.“ FN58 Swerdlow then asked the Paces lawyer for a copy of Dr. Shuputs deposition. FN59 The Paces lawyer provided a copy, as well as copies of the d
45、epositions of two IHC nurses. FN60 After receiving these documents, Swerdlow cut off contact with the Paces and their lawyer and-without consulting either the Paces or their lawyer-composed an addendum to his original affidavit *1206 in which he directly reversed his support of the Paces claim, and
46、instead supported Dr. Shuputs defense. FN61 Specifically, Swerdlow stated that it was now his opinion that “Dr. Shuputs care of Ms. Putnam-and specifically his decision to discharge her from the Intermountain Surgery Center -was within the standard of care.“ FN62 Swerdlow simultaneously faxed his ad
47、dendum to both the Paces lawyer and Dr. Shuputs counsel-again without first consulting the Paces or their lawyer-on the eve of the summary judgment hearing, which Dr. Shuput had filed a motion for days earlier. FN63With the summary judgment hearing only a day away, the Paces attempted to contact Swe
48、rdlow about his change of position, but were unable to do so. FN64 The Paces also sent a letter to Swerdlow demanding that he repair the damage he had done to their case. FN65 At the summary judgment hearing, the Paces were granted a brief continuance. FN66 When Swerdlow remained uncooperative, the
49、Paces moved for another continuance, withdrew Swerdlow as their expert, and filed a motion to designate a new expert witness. FN67 The Paces did not file a memorandum opposing Dr. Shuputs motion for summary judgment. FN68 The state court denied the Paces motions and granted summary judgment to Dr. Shuput. FN69The Paces did not appeal the decision, and instead commenced a suit against Swerdlow,
