1、法律英语写作总论一、法律与法律英语 现代汉语中，“法律“一词有广义和狭义之分。广义的“法律“指法律的整 ，就我国现在的法律而论，它包括作为根本法的宪法，全国人大及其常委 的法律、国务院制定的行政法规、某些地方国家机关制定的地方性法规等。 狭义的法律 “仅指全国人大和人大常委会制定的法律。英语中 law 一词，同汉语中的“法律”一词的习惯用法相当，即可指广义解，又可指狭义解，具体含义要从其单复数形式或联系上下文加以识别。 从广义上说，在制定、解释和执行法律的过程中所使用的语言统称为法律语言，其中主要包括立法语言和司法语言。立法语言是指规范性法律文件所使用的语言，包括宪法、法律、法规、条例、法典以
2、及其他规范人们行为准则的指令、命令等所使用的语言，其中以法律条文语言为主。司法语言是指法律工作者在执法过程中按照法律规范的要求使用的一套法律公务用语，其中包括司法书面语和司法口语。司法书面语指各类司法文书，即警察机构、检察机构、审判机构、公证机构、律师以及诉讼当事人等依法制作的具有法律效力或法律意义的法律文件。 法律英语是指普通法国家以普通英语为基础，在立法和司法过程中逐渐形成的、具有规约性的语言变体。它包括规范性法律文件用语以及法律工作者在执法过程中使用的一整套规范化的法律公务用语。 作为一种语言变体(variety) ，法律英语的语音系统与普通英语和其他专用英语如科技英语、新闻英语等没有区
3、别，它也没有自己独立的词汇系统和语法规则。但在长期使用中，法律英语在英语基本词汇系统和语法规则的基础上有了一定的规律，如其句法结构形式比较固定，使用陈述句的频率比较高，往往带有一定数量的专业术语等。因此，在词汇、语法、语义、语用、修辞等方面，法律英语又有自己的特点，形成了特定的法律英语语言风格。从写作的角度对这些特点进行分析探讨，会有助于学习者对法律英语文体风格的把握，从而写出正确、规范、地道的法律英语。 二、法律英语的文体特点 书面法律语言具有准确性、严谨性和庄重性的特点。无论是立法语言还是司法语言，一最都不宜使用修辞手法和文学笔调，并应尽量避免模糊性和多义性，努力做的准确严密，无懈可击。
4、对于法律文书的语言特点，著名的文体学家侯维瑞(1999 :295 - 296)有过一段精彩的概述“法律文书如要有效地行使其职能，必须词义准确、文意确切，丝毫不允许词义模棱两可而产生歧义，也丝毫不能容忍因为句子缺乏组织而任人歪曲。 在法律文书中，全部内容必须字面化、外部化；这就是说，法律文书所要表达的内容必须全部体现在文字表面，即有一说一，不能有一说半。含蓄表达、深层意义在法律文书中是无立足之地的。同时，法律英语只表达它的字面所表达的内容，即说一是一，不能说一指二。对于法律文书未明确表述的内容可以一概不予承认；引申的理解、推理的解释在法律语言中是不能存在的”。法律英语的准确、严谨和庄重很大程度上
5、是由一系列语言要素决定的。书面法律英语在句子类型、句式结构、时态和语态的选择、非谓语动词的使用、代词的用 法以及情态动词的使用等方面都有自己的特点。现从词汇特点和句子特点两个方 面对它们加以分析。 (一)词汇特点 1.选词庄重、正式 法律是掌握国家政权的阶级和集团的意志体现，它有鲜明的政策性和权威性。为了维护法律的严肃性，法律、法规的遣词力求庄重、正式。请注意下面例句中标记出来的粗体词的选用。 （1） This Law is enacted for the purpose of protecting the legitimate rights and interests of the part
6、ies to contracts， maintaining the socio-economic order and promoting the socialist modernization. (Contract Law of the Peoples Republic of China: Art.1) 试比较 enact 与 make，maintain 与 keep， promote 与 speed up 的庄重程度。 ( 2) The shipper shall be deemed to have guaranteed to the carrier the accuracy at the
7、time of shipment of the marks， number， quantity and weight，as furnished by him， and the shipper shall indemnify the carrier against all loss，damages and expenses arising or resulting from inaccuracies in such particulars. The right of the carrier to such indemnity shall in no way limit his responsib
8、ility and liability under the contract of carriage to any person other than the shipper. (Hague- Visby Rules: Art III (5)同样，该例句中的 deem， furnish， indemnify， inaccuracies 以及 indemnity 就比 consider， provide (或 supply) ， compensate (或 make up)，以及 compensation更为正式和庄重。 (3) The World Intellectual Property O
9、rganization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO)，desiring to establish a mutually supportive relationship between them， and with a view to establishing appropriate arrangements for cooperation between them， agree as follows: (Agreement Between the World Intellectual Property Organization an
10、d the World Trade Organization: Preamble) 试比较 desire 和 wish 或 want， with a view to 和 in order to。 需要说明的是:词的庄重、正式性是相对的。例如: deem， take into account， consider， recognize 和 think 都是 “考虑到” 的意思，但是其庄重正式性是依次递 的。除了较不正式的 think 通常不在立法文书中使用外，其它几个词和词组都频 出现在法律文书中，有时为了避免重复，也会在同一则法律条文中同时运用其中 的几个词和词组。例如: (4) Members
11、 Considering that Ministers agreed in the Punta del Este Declaration that “Following an examination of the operation of GATT Articles related to the trade restrictive and distorting effects of investment measures， negotiations should elaborate， as appropriate， further provisions that may be necessar
12、y to avoid such adverse effects on trade”;Desiring to promote the expansion and progressive liberalization of world trade and to facilitate investment across international frontiers so as to increase the economic growth of all trading partners， particularly developing country Members， while ensuring
13、 free competition; Taking into account the particular trade， development and financial needs of developing country Members, particularly those of the least-developed country Members; Recognizing that certain investment measures can cause trade-restrictive and distorting effects; Hereby agree as foll
14、ows:. . . (Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures: Preamble) 2.古语、借词较多 法律英语词汇包括了大量中古英语、拉丁语和法语词汇，其主要原因是为了显 示法律语言的神圣性、权威性和严密性。 2.1 古语 现代英语中已经不再广泛使用古英语词汇，但法律英语却保留了不少古英语 词汇。试比较: Legal English Daily English hereby by this means herein in this hereof of or concerning this hereto to this hereinafte
15、r after this thereafter after that，accordingly whereby through, by that said the, that aforesaid previous forthwith immediately henceforth from now on theretofore up to that time hitherto before viz. that is， namely whilst during 2.2 借词 法律英语中拉丁语常常出现。例如 in personam (对人的，属人的 ) ， in rem(对 物的) ， ad idem
16、(在指定日期 ) ， status quo (现状) ， prima facie (初步的，表面的) ，ex officio (依职权地) ， stare decisis (遵循先例 ) ， lex situs (物之所在地法)和 ratio decidendi (判决理由 )等等。法语在历史上对法律英语的形成和发展产生过很大影 响，很多英语法律词汇从法语中借来。例如 bar， suit， plaintiff， complaint， summons， indictment， jury， terms， damages 和 claim 等词都来自法语。 3.术语繁多 任何法律文书中都可以找到浩如烟
17、海的法律术语，法律英语在众多的专门用 途英语中应该是专业化最为突出的一种。法律术语不胜枚举，下面选取几个最基本的词汇作简单说明: plaintiff(原告) ， defendant(被告) ， appellant (上诉方) ， appellee (被上诉方) ， prosecutor (公诉人) ，opinion(判决书)和 jury (陪审团)等等。 4.近义词成对使用 在立法文书和准法律文书(例如合同)中常可见到以下用法: rights and interests (权益) ， terms and conditions (条款) ， complete and final understa
18、nding(全部 和最终的理解) ， customs fees and duties (关税) ， loss of and damage(灭失和损 坏) ，null and void(元效) ， sign and issue (签发) ， furnish and provide (提供) ， rules and regulations(规章) ， last will and testament(遗嘱) ，as and when(当的时候) 等等。 上述成对近义词已作为习惯用语使用，这些词组都表示固定的意义，用于写作和翻译时不能随意拆开。近义词的成对使用体现了法律英语的庄重和严谨。 5.情态动词
19、使用频率高 由于法律代表统治阶级的意志，表现司法主体对司法客体的行为制约和义务 规定，所以情态动词在立法文书中频繁出现。 表示“应当”或“得”时使用 shall 或 must， shall 比 must 的语气更强;表示“不 得”或“禁止”时使用 shall not 或 may not，前者语气强于后者；表示“可以“时一般 使用 may。例如: (5) The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes
20、. ( 6) The provisions of this Article shall not apply to the operation of aircraft in e transit，but shall apply to the air transit of goods. (7) In order to offset or prevent dumping，a contracting party may levy on any dumped product an anti-dumping duty not greater in amount than the margin of dump
21、ing in respect of such product. ( 8) As a general rule a treaty may not impose obligations or confer rights on the third ties without their consent. (9) The insurance must be issued irrespective of percentage. 6.指代明确 由于人称代词常表示作者的主观性并且容易造成混淆，为了确切说明“谁“、 “什么“的概念，法律英语中往往宁可重复使用名词也不用代词。而在法律文书中 出现的“he， she
22、， we“等代词，往往表示泛指。律师们更会尽量避免使用“I， me， we， us， you， your“等第一、第二人称代词，以免给人造成主观、随意、傲慢无理、不够专业的印象。 法律英语中常用 the said 或 the same 加上一个名词来指代前面提到的名词， 可译为“上述的“，“该“，有时候直接重复该名词。 另外，It 在法律英语中除用作形式主语，形式宾语外，一般少用。例如: (lO) The seller shall not be held responsible for any delay in delivery or non-delivery of the goods due
23、 to Force Majeure. However， the seller shall advise the buyer immediately of such occurrence and within fourteen days thereafter， shall send by airmail to the buyer a certificate issued by the competent government authorities of the place where the accident has occurred as evidence thereof. Under su
24、ch circumstances the seller， however， is still under the obligation to take all necessary measures to hasten the delivery of the goods. In case the accident lasts for more than 10 weeks， the buyer shall have the right to cancel this contract. 该合同条款中就没有使用一个指示代词或不定代词，而是重复所指的名词，使得所指的人和事非常清楚。 ( 11) If a
25、ny disagreement arises, the said treaty shall be applied. (12) No one may engage in securities business without approval of the same authority. (13) We have deemed it more expeditious to have the parties in advance of the trail. (it 用作形式宾语) 7.名词性短语居多 用名词主语或宾语的中心词，便于使用丰富的限定和修饰成份，相比之下，动词词组元论在使用数量和结构的复
26、杂性程度上都不及名词词组。在法律英语中，名词和名词性词组的频繁使用满足了法律英语的严密性要求。 (14) Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the pre
27、sent Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII. (UN Charter: Art. 2 (7) ) (15) The Seller shall not be responsible for the delay of shipment or non-delivery of the goods due to Force Majeure，which might occur during the process of manuf
28、acturing or in the course of loading or transit. The Seller shall advise the Buyer immediately of the occurrence mentioned above and within 10 days thereafter. The Seller shall send a notice by courier to the Buyer for their acceptance of a certificate of the accident issued by the local chamber of
29、commerce under whose jurisdiction the accident occurs as evidence thereof. Under such circumstances the Seller， however， is still under the obligation to take all necessary measures to hasten the delivery of the goods. In case the accident lasts for more than 6 days the Buyer shall have the right to
30、 cancel the Contract. (a typical contract clause) （二）句型特点1.结构完整 由于法律文书结构的完整性和表意的严密性，在法律英语句子的使用中，一般 采用主语、谓语都具备的完全主谓句，即完整句。通常不使用省略句，以免造成因 省略或句子缺省而出现歧义说误，甚至被人任意歪曲。例如: ( 16) “Invention“ in the Patent Law means any new technical solution relating to a product， a process or an improvement thereof. “Utilit
31、y Model“ in the Patent Law means any new technical solution relating to the shape， the structure， or the 让 combination， of a product， which is fit for practical use. “Design“ in the Patent Law means any new design of the shape， pattern，colour, or their combination，of a product， which creates an aest
32、hetic feeling and is fit for industrial application. ( 1 7) Any dispute arising from or in connection with the Contract shall be settled through friendly negotiation. In case no settlement is reached， the dispute shall be submitted to China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission ( C
33、IETAC)， Shenzhen Commission， for arbitration in accordance with its rules in effect at the time of applying for arbitration. The arbitral award is final and binding upon both parties. (18) The WTO Secretariat shall transmit to the International Bureau， free of charge， a copy of the laws and regulati
34、ons received by the WTO Secretariat from WTO Members under Article 63. 2 of the TRIPS Agreement in the language or languages and in the form or forms in which they were received， and the International Bureau shall place such copies in its collection. 以上例句均为完整句，表意完整严密。2.陈述旬为基本句式 由于法律文书是用来确认法律关系，贯彻法律条
35、令，规定人们的权利和义务以陈述案件的事实的专用公文，所以法律英语的基本句式通常是陈述句。例如: (19) The Arbitration Commission has one honorary Chairman and several advisers. (20) All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter， and shall refrain from giving assistance to a
36、ny state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. (UN Charter: Art. 2 (5) (21) Any clause， covenant， or agreement in a contract of carriage relieving the carrier or the ship from liability for loss or damage to，or in connection with， goods arising from negligence，
37、fault，or failure in the duties and obligations provided in this Article or lessening such liability otherwise than as provided in this Convention， shall be null and void and of no effect. A benefit of insurance in favor of the carrier or 血 war clause shall be deemed to be a clause relieving the carr
38、ier from liability. (Hague- Visby Rules: Art III (8) 3.长句较多 法律英语的句法特点是和法律英语的文体特征密切相联的，正式的法律条 和文本中由于对某一法律概念成立的条件限定很多，从而对中心词的限定较多，所以法律英语的长句居多，短句偏少。以上很多例句就很长，下面的句子同样如此: (22) Any clause， covenant or agreement in a contract of carriage relieving the artier or the ship from liability for loss or damage to
39、 or in connection with goods arising from negligence，fault or failure in the duties and obligations provided in this Article or lessening such liability otherwise than as provided in these Rules， shall be null and void and of no effect. (Hague- Visby Rules: Art III (8) (23) After the goods are loade
40、d the bill of lading be issued by the carrier， master or agent of the carrier，to the shipper shall，if the shipper so demands， be a - shipped“ bill of lading，provided that if the shipper shall have previously taken up any document of title to such goods， he shall surrender the same as against the iss
41、ue of the “shipped“ bill of lading， but at the option of the carrier such document of title may be noted at the port of shipment by the carrier， master， or agent with the name or names of the ship or ships upon which the goods have been shipped and the date or dates of shipment，and when so noted the
42、 same shall for the purpose of this Article be deemed to constitute a “shipped“ bill of lading. (Hague- Visby Rules: Art III (7)以上两个例子都各由一个句子组成。例句(22)含 63 个单词，而例句(23 )则含 139 个单词。 法律英语在句子结构上联绵不断，盘根错节，主要表现在以下两种形式: 3. 1 使用主从复合句 主要是通过使用条件状语从句和定语从句对相关词语进行限制和修饰。 条件状语从句中较常见的结构包括: Where. . . ; If X， then Y
43、shall be Z; If X， then Y shall do Z; Should. . . ; Provided that. . .和 Whereas. . .等。例如: (24) Where using others registered trademarks has been permitted， the names of the licensee and the production place of the commodity must be marked in the commodity using the registered trademark. (25)If a mino
44、r ratifies a contract upon reaching the age of majority， he or she is then bound to it. (26 )If a contract is signed，then both sides shall perform their contractual obligations. (27 ) Should a branch terminate its operations， it shall submit a written application to the Peoples Bank of China 30 days
45、 prior to termination. (28) The text materials contained in this Web site may be used， downloaded， reproduced or reprinted， provided that such use， download， reproduction or reprint is for non-commercial or personal use only. (29) Whereas you have breached the contract， we have no option but to lodg
46、e a claim on you for the losses incurred. 法律英语较之普通英语更要求准确，限定更严谨，所以限制性定语从句使用比 较普遍。作为补充、说明、解释性的非限制性定语从句较限制性定语从句使用得 少。例如: (30) All facts that prove the true circumstances of a case were evidence. (限制 性定语从句) (31) Questions concerning matters governed by this convention which are not expressly settled in
47、 it are to be settled in conformity with the general principles on which it is based or， in the absence of such principles， in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law. (限制性定语从句) (32) The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the
48、 United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. (限制性定语从句) (33) All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States， which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representa
49、tives. (非限制性定语从句) 3.2 使用综合复杂句 法律英语中除了一方面在句首使用状语从句，另一方面在句子的内部使用层 层限制修饰的定语从句外，还大量地使用由状语分句和关系分句以及其他一些分 句构成的综合复杂句，以达到准确、严密和避免歧义的目的。例如: (34) Where a foreigner or enterprise applies for trademark registration in China，the matter shall be handled in accordance with any agreement concluded between the country to which the applicant belongs and the Peoples Republic of China， or any international treaty to which both countries are parties， or on the basis of the principle of reciprocity. 以上例句除在句首使用了由 Where 引导的状语分句外，句中还有用“介词 + 关系代词 which“引导的两个关系分句。 (35) The Ministerial Conf
