1、Economics and Economic Reasoning,Chapter 1,Laugher Curve,Q. Why did God create economists? A. In order to make weather forecasters look good.,What Economics Is,Economics is the study of how human beings coordinate their wants and desires, given the decision-making mechanisms, social customs, and pol
2、itical realities of the society.,What Economics Is,One of the key words in the definition is “coordination.”,What Economics Is,Any economic system must solve three central coordination problems:,What, and how much, to produce. How to produce it. For whom to produce it.,What Economics Is,Scarcity exi
3、sts because individuals want more than can be produced.,Scarcity the goods available are too few to satisfy individuals desires.,What Economics Is,The degree of scarcity is constantly changing.,The quantity of goods, services, and usable resources depends on technology and human action.,What Economi
4、cs Is,Economics is the study of how to get people to do things theyre not wild about doing and not to do things they are wild about doing.,What Economics Is,To understand the economy, you need to learn:,Economic reasoning. Economic terminology. Economic insights economists have about issues, and the
5、ories that lead to those insights.,What Economics Is,To understand the economy, you need to learn: Information about economic institutions.,Information about the economic policy options facing society today.,A Guide to Economic Reasoning,Economic reasoning is making decisions by comparing costs and
6、benefits.,Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits,The relevant costs and benefits that matter are the expected incremental, or additional, costs incurred and the expected incremental benefits of a decision.,Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits,Economist use the term marginal when referring to additiona
7、l or incremental.,Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits,Marginal cost the additional cost to you over and above the costs you have already incurred.,This means not counting sunk costs costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered.,Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits,Marginal benefit
8、the additional benefit above and beyond what youve already accrued.,Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits,According to the economics decision rule:,If the relevant benefits of doing something exceed the relevant costs, do it. If the relevant costs of doing something exceed the relevant benefits, dont
9、 do it.,Economics and Passion,Economic reasoning is based on the premise that everything has a cost. It leads to a better society for the majority of people.,Opportunity Cost,Opportunity cost is the basis of cost/benefit economic reasoning It is the benefit foregone, or cost, of the next-best altern
10、ative to the activity you have chosen.,Opportunity Cost,In economic reasoning, opportunity cost must be less than the benefit of what you have chosen.,Opportunity Cost,Opportunity costs are not limited to individual decisions but to government decisions as well.,Economics and Market Forces,The oppor
11、tunity cost concept applies to all aspects of life. It is fundamental to understanding how society reacts to scarcity.,Economics and Market Forces,When goods are scarce, they must be rationed.,That means a mechanism must be chosen to determine who gets what.,Economics and Market Forces,Economic forc
12、es are the necessary reactions to scarcity.,Economics and Market Forces,A market force is an economic circumstance that is given relatively free rein by society to work through the market.,Economics and Market Forces,Market forces ration by changing prices.,When there is a shortage, the price goes u
13、p. When there is a surplus, the price goes down.,Economics and Market Forces,Economic reality is controlled by three forces:,Economic forces (the invisible hand). Social and cultural forces. Political and legal forces.,Economics and Market Forces,The invisible hand is the price mechanism, the rise a
14、nd fall of prices, that guides our actions in a market.,Economics and Market Forces,Social, cultural, and political forces play a major role in deciding whether to allow market forces to predominate.,Economics and Market Forces,Political and social forces often work together against the invisible ha
15、nd.,Social and political forces are active in all parts of your life.,Economics and Market Forces,What happens in society can be seen as a reaction to, and interaction of, economic forces, political forces, social forces, and historical forces.,Economic Terminology,Youll need to learn economic termi
16、nology. Hundreds of economic terms will be introduced in this book.,Economic Insights,General insights into how economies work are often based on generalizations called economic theories.,Economic Insights,Theory ties together economists terminology and knowledge about economic institutions and lead
17、s to economic insights.,Economic Insights,Economic theories are too abstract to apply to specific cases.,A theory is often embodied in an economic model or an economic principle.,Economic Insights,Economic model a framework that places the generalized insights of the theory in a more specific contex
18、tual setting.,Economic Insights,Economic principle a commonly held insight stated as a law or general assumption.,Economic Insights,Economists cannot test their models with controlled experiments.,It is impossible to hold “other things constant,” as is done in laboratory experiments.,Economic Insigh
19、ts,Theories, models, and principles must be combined with a knowledge of real-world economic institutions to arrive at a specific policy recommendation.,The Invisible Hand Theory,Economist have come to the following insight: Price has a tendency to fall when the quantity supplied is greater than the
20、 quantity demanded. Price has a tendency to rise when the quantity demanded is greater than the quantity supplied.,The Invisible Hand Theory,According to the invisible hand theory, a market economy, through the price mechanism, will allocate resources efficiently.,Efficiency means achieving a goal a
21、s cheaply as possible.,Economic Theory and Stories,Economic theory and its models are a shorthand means of telling a story. If you cant translate a theory into a story, you dont understand the theory.,Microeconomics and Macroeconomics,Economic theory is divided into two parts: microeconomic theory a
22、nd macroeconomic theory.,Microeconomics,Microeconomics is the study of individual choice, and how that choice is influenced by economic forces.,Microeconomics,Microeconomics studies such things as:,The pricing policy of firms. Households decisions on what to buy. How markets allocate resources among
23、 alternative ends.,Macroeconomics,Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole. It considers the problems of inflation, unemployment, business cycles, and economic growth.,Economic Institutions,To apply economic theory to reality, youve got to have a sense of economic institutions. Economic
24、 institutions laws, common practices, and organizations in a society that affect the economy.,Economic Institutions,Economic institutions differ significantly among nations.,They sometimes seem to operate in ways quite different than economic theory predicts.,Economic Policy Options,Economic policie
25、s are actions (or inactions) taken by government to influence economic actions.,Economic Policy Options,To carry out economic policy effectively, one must understand how the economic policy might change institutions.,Objective Policy Analysis,Good objective policy analysis keeps the value judgments
26、separate from the analysis. Subjective policy analysis is that which reflects the analysts view of how things should be.,Objective Policy Analysis,To make clear the distinction between objective and subjective analysis, economics is divided into three categories:,Positive economics Normative economi
27、cs Art of economics,Objective Policy Analysis,Positive economics the study of what is, and how the economy works.,Normative economics the study of what the goals of the economy should be.,Objective Policy Analysis,Art of economics the application of the knowledge learned in positive economics to ach
28、ieve the goals determined in normative economics.,Objective Policy Analysis,Maintaining objectivity is easier in positive economics harder in normative economics.,Objective Policy Analysis,It is hardest to maintain objectivity in the art of economics.,It embodies the problems of both positive and normative economics,Policy and Social and Political Forces,The choice of policy options depends on more than economic theory. As soon as economists apply economy theory to policy, political and social forces must be taken into account.,Economics and Economic Reasoning,End of Chapter 1,
