1、1西方语言学流派漫谈Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts北京外国语大学 中国外语教育研究中心 刘润清为何要讲流派问题？ 我主张，进入一个研究领域时， 第一要宏观，第二要对思想（ideas) 感兴趣。 宏观：做研究，别一下扎到一个小领域、小题目里去，那样会见木不见林。了解宏观背景，让你不失迷方向。 对思想、哲学理念感兴趣，比只对纯技术性的东西感兴趣，更有意义。技术是手段，提高认识是追求。1. 区分流派与分支1.1 流派多指思潮, 有代表人物, 代表著作, 主要观点, 研究方法, 盛行时代,有其影响, 往往有历史视角。 （它未必对领域中的诸多问题
2、都有论述。 ）Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective.1.2 分支多指领域, 研究范围, 也有经典著作, 有影响的人物, 多用共时观点。可能多个流派都对它有过贡献。 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figu
3、res; often a synchronic perspective.)1.3 历史视角和共时视角 一起 可以画出一个十字, 像一个坐标.The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate.Distinction between Schools and Branches1.2 语言学的分支: Branches: 从内部分:语音学, 音系 (位)学, 词汇学, 形态 学, 句法学, 语义学, 语用学(?) Distinction from within: phonetics,
4、 phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) 从外部分: 心理语言学, 社会语言学, 计算语言学, 神经语言学, 文化语言学, 人类语言学，语料库语言学等。 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics
5、, etc. 大分类: 理论语言学, 应用语言学 Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.1.3 语言学流派:传统语法 (600BC18 世纪)traditional grammar; 历史语言学(19 世纪 100 年) historical linguistics; 现代语言学开端(索緖尔, 20 世纪初) the beginning of modern linguistics; 欧洲功能主义(20 世纪 20-50)European functionalism伦敦学派(194050)The London School; 系统功能语法
6、(1960现在) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar美国结构主义语言学(193050) American structuralism 美国转换生成语法(1957现) Chomskys Generative Grammar认知语言学 （today）Cognitive linguistics2. 宏观区分流派2A More Macro Distinction 2.1 形式派注重分析语言的形式, 结构, 成分和成分的分布, 对语言进行形式描写和描写的形式化, 考虑语言的心理性.The formal school: emphasize the formal,
7、structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.2.2 功能派注重分析语言的功能, 分析不同层次上的成分的语义功能, 认为功能决定形式, 考虑语言的社会性 . The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function de
8、termines form; a sociolinguistic perspective.2.3 两派的区别1/形式主义者认为语言是心理现象;功能主义者说语言是社会现象.The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact.2. 形式主义者说语言普遍现象是人类生理遗传;功能主义者说是来自社会对语言的普遍运用. The formal camp say linguistic universals are mens biological inher
9、itance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language.3.形式主义者 说儿童习得语言是人类的内在能力; 功能主义者说这是儿童交际的需要和能力的发展. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from childrens needs and de
10、velopment.4.形式主义者把语言当成独立系统研究；功能主义者把语言放在社会功能中研究。The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function.2.4 韩礼德: 20 世纪下半叶的基本对立阵营不是结构主义与生成语法。最根本的两大阵营是：以组合关系为取向的形式派（形式语法， 源于逻辑和哲学） ，和以聚合关系为取向的功能派（功能语法， 源于修辞和人种学） 。形式
11、派把语言看成一系列的结构， 这些结构之间可以找出固定的关系（所以才有转换一说） ；他们强调语言的普遍性，把语法（他们称之为句法）看成是语言的基础（所以语法是任意的） ，因此语法围绕着句子而展开。Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between structural and generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the fo
12、rmal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (hence the i
13、ntroduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence3功能派把语言看成是一个关系网，其基本关系借助于结构加以实现；他们强调语言之间的不同点，把语义看做语言的基础（所以语法是自然的） ，
14、因此语法是围绕着文本或语篇而展开的。两个阵营之间有许多交叉，也有互相借鉴， 但从思潮上讲二者是很不同的，两大阵营开展对话也很困难。The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the gram
15、mar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue.韩礼德还说：功能语法属于应用研究，形式语法属于纯理论研究；功能语法更近于修辞， 形式语法更近于逻辑；功能语法研究实际
16、语言能力，形式语法研究理想的语言能力；功能语法研究文本/语篇，形式语法研究句子。功能语法把文本分析看做行为方式，语言理论是成事之手段。Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentenc
17、e. The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done.研究流派更具理论价值: 从哲学上看, 如何看待世界就如何看待语言; 从心理学上看, “白板说” 和“内容说”也区分两派;从方法论上看, 归纳法, 演绎法, 证实，证伪，还是二者结合等,也有不同。Its more theoretically significant to study schools; they involve philosophy, psychology (b
18、lank slate/content approach), and methodology (induction， deduction，verification, falsification, abduction).3. 流派与分支的价值 Significance of the Two 研究分支更具使用价值: 语言内部分支也有理论价值 , 但有更多的使用价值;外部分支既有理论价值,又有应用价值. Its more significant in practice to study the various branches of linguistics, not without theoretic
19、al significance. 任何学科内, 不应该只注重应用研究, 基础理论研究十分重要。基础研究费时费力，见效慢；应用研究见效快。 In any discipline we should take seriously both basic, pure research and applied research. Both are useful and important.4. 流派介绍 ：传统语法4.1 传统语法: 从希腊语到拉丁语, 再从拉丁语到其他欧洲语言 ;注重语音和词汇, 句法很少, 以教学语法为主,多为规定性语法,不是描写性语法; 影响很大,时间很长; 其贡献是创造了描写工具(
20、其术语今天还在使用 ).Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.4.2 历史语言学: 语言比较,语言历史,语言谱系, 语音变化规律;其后期的新语法学派为避免 20 世纪培养了人才;历史语言学为避免 20 世纪现代语言学开端铺平4道路。 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of
21、 sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.56. 流派介绍：现代语言学开端索绪尔: 现代语言学鼻祖;区分了语言和言语,历时语言学和共时语言学, 语言符号的任意性,所指和能指都是任意的; 语言是一个系统, 一个关系系统(在系统中的位置决定其意义); 语言是符号学中最典型的代表 .其理论影响深远. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; s
22、ynchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs德国哲学家 Ernst Cassirer 把索绪尔与伽利略相提并论 : “In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo,
23、 which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world.”流派介绍：早期功能学派4.4 欧洲功能学派: 布拉格学派,哥本哈根学派;贡献:音位学,已知信息和待传信息; 主位和述位;主题和评述;影响大;功能主义鼻祖。Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comm
24、ent;influential around 1920-404.5 美国结构主义 : 博厄斯, 萨裴尔,布龙菲尔德, 哈利斯,豪克特等; 萨裴尔-沃尔夫假说, 又称语言相对论;哲学上的实证主义和 “百板说”; 心理学上的行为主义; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy, blank slate, behaviorism in psychology.流派介绍：
25、美国结构主义严格的 “发现程序”,二分法,不问意义和功能,看结构分布; 重证据,不看主观印象;教学上的 “听说法”影响外语教学几十年.豪克特的确 16 个语言设计特征十分重6要.Rigid procedure of discovery, binary cutting, ignore meaning; distribution of elements; emphasis on evidence than impression; audio-lingual method in teaching; design features of language.4.5 美国的乔姆斯基:生成语法语言上的一场革
26、命;其语言观, 哲学上的唯理主义,心理学上认知主义; 语言与生俱来,强调大脑的初始状态;目标是揭示语言本质和人类本质 ; Chomskys Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.莱茵斯评乔氏：“Chomkys position is not only unique within linguistics
27、at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subjectRight or wrong, Chomskys theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomskys theoretica
28、l pronouncements.” John LyonsChomsky“It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the childs discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory a generative grammar of his language many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience b
29、y long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, thedegenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence,
30、 motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(- Chomsky 1965：Aspects of the theory of syntax)“显然，语言习得基于儿童发现从形式角度看是一种深奥、抽象的理论即母语的一种生成语法。这种语法的许
31、多概念和原则必须经过漫长、复杂的无意识的亚推理过程，才与经验稍稍相连。 稍微想一想儿童习得的语法性质，他接触到的语料质量之差和范围之小，儿童习得语言与智力、动机、情绪毫无关系，而且他们的环境因素千差万别，最后所得语法的却惊人地相似，让我们很难相信，一个对语法没有大致了解的有机体，能够学到这麽多语言结构知识。 ” 乔氏，1965 句法理论面面观语言描写力求形式化;句法独立,句法为核心; 观察充分, 描写充分, 解释充分;其影响深远,令人耳目一新;乔氏理论对哲学,心理学,计算机语言,形式化等, 都有贡献. To formalize the description of L; independenc
32、e of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics7Chomsky:语言天赋In “The Architecture of Language” (2002:50) he wrote: “Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody
33、answers is that their arguments would make no sense. Theres no way to answer them. To say that language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit andmy granddaughter and put them in a community wher
34、e people are talking English, theyll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate.”Chomsky:语言教学Chomsky (1988)” teaching sho
35、uld not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students 唤起学生的自然好
36、奇心 and stimulating their interest in流派介绍：系统功能语言学4.6 伦敦语言学派: 英国有悠久语言研究传统，人造语言、速写、拼法改革等起于英国，著名语音学家丹尼尔琼斯 Daniel Jones 、亨利 斯威特 Henry Sweet生于这里。伦敦学派后来成为系统功能语法学派。马林诺夫斯基, 佛斯, 韩礼德等.意义即使用. 语言环境决定意义；结构与系统； 语言潜势和语言实际行为;组合关系和聚合关系；语言功能分类 The London School: Britain has a long tradition of language studies. The gr
37、eat phoneticians Henry Sweet， Daniel Jones。 Malinovki, J.R. Firth, M.A.K. Halliday; meaning is use; context determines meaning; emphasis on both structure and system; linguistic potential and actual behavior; paradigmatic/ syntagmatic relations; types of functions of language 语言是许多小系统组成的大系统.语言的结构由社会
38、功能所决定.语言的三大功能;儿童语言的七大功能. 在教学上和文体学上都有贡献 . Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); childrens seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.语言系统 The material process: action and event
39、. The transitivity system 及物性系统: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process.8 The internalized process: 1.
40、perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by
41、what can be said.语言功能Functions of Childrens Language:1. The instrumental function: to meet his material needs and services;（工具）2. The regulatory function: to control others behavior;（调节）3. The interactional function: to talk with others;（交际）4. The personal function: to express his feelings;（个人表达）5.
42、The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings;（探索）6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings;（想象）7. The informative function: to provide information for others.（告知）The adults language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract
43、 functions.Functions of adults language: Ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能The Ideational function（ 概念功能）： to convey new information unknown to the hearer. It is the meaning potential, used in all languages. It is to refer to categories of experience of t
44、he world.2.The interpersonal function（人际功能）: it embodies all the uses of language to express social and personal relations; the ways the speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act. It is realized by mood 语气 and modality 情态.The Textual Function（ 语篇功能）: Language has mechanisms to
45、 make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences. “John saw a handbag in a field. John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed a handba
46、g to a policeman.”一个新学派 ：认知语言学认知语言学: 是不是一个新流派? 还是一个分支? 始于 20 世纪 70 年代, 关心语言与心智和大脑的关系, 说语言是认知系统的一部分; 认知系统是由感知, 情感,范畴化, 抽象化,和推理等能力组成. 目标不是描写语言行为,而是解释引起语言行为的心理结构和心理过程, 揭示语言背后内在的深层规律 . 人物: 乔姆斯基, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,Talor 等.莱科夫 George Lakoff “We are neural bein
47、gs,“ states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. 9“Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit.“
48、 L. Talmy Ph.D.BerkerleyPioneering work In cognitivelinguistics I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way to conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics
49、 include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.认知语言学的理论原则: 语义结构没有普遍性;语法不独立 ; 语法和词汇没有意义区别(符号连续体).研究领域: 范畴化, 概念隐喻, 转喻, 多义性, 拟象性 , 语法化等.跨学科性: 与哲学, 心理学, 人类学, 计算机科学,神经语言学等有关 .有不同学派: 圣地亚哥派,伯克利学派 Principles: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distingu
