1、Chapter 1Prescriptive(规范的) -lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Descriptive(描述性的) - describe/analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Synchronic(同步的) study- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern lin
2、guistics) Diachronic(历时的) study- description of a language as it changes through time (studies historical development of language over a period of time) Langue(语言) - the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; abstract; doesnt change frequently.Parole(言语) - the concre
3、te use of the conventions and the application of the rules; concrete; varies from person to person, from situation to situation.Saussure(索绪尔) thinks that parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts for systematic investigation, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.Saussure take
4、s a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the id
5、eal speakers competence, not his performance. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.必考:Chomsky 的语言学来源:philosophy, mathematics, psychologyLanguage:Language is a system, systematic(系统的) e.g. “iblk“ is not a possi
6、ble combined./ “Been he wounded has“ is not a grammatically accepted sentence.Language is arbitrary(任意的 ):no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with./ “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.“Language is pr
7、imarily vocal.Language is human-specific(人类特有的).Arbitrariness(任意):no logical connection between sounds and meanings.Productivity(生产力)/creativity(创造力):peculiar (特权) to human languages,users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence
8、like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Duality(double articulation):Lower level-sounds (meaningless)Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)Displacement(取代):provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide
9、range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.(不受时空、地理的局限)Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学2.1 The phonic medium of language2.2 Phonetics 语音学1. what is phoneticsis defined as the study of the phonic medium of languageis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languag
10、esstudies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. p bilabial, stop. Three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 -from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学-
11、from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another2. Speech organsthree important areas: Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔- the throat; Oral cavity 口腔- the mouth; Nasal cavity 鼻腔- the nose. 认识、了解1.
12、Lips 唇2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolus)牙槽4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum)软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue 舌尖8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue 舌根10. Vocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔3. Orthographic 拼写正确的,正字法 representation of speech sounds International Phonetic Alpha
13、bet (IPA)国际音标区分两者(选择题)Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear l, pit Narrow transcription - used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark l , aspirated p Some major articulatory variables Voicing- voiced 膜擦音 fricat
14、ives: f, v, s, z, W, T, F, V, h; 塞擦音 affricates: tF, dV; liquids: l(lateral), r; 鼻音 nasals: m, n, N; glides/semivowels: w, j. 根据发音位置 the place of articulation 双唇音 bilabial: p, b, m, w; 唇齿音 labiodental: f , v; 齿音 dental: W, T; 齿龈音 alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, r; 舌面中音 palatal: F, V, tF, dV, j ; 软腭音 vel
15、ar: k, g, N; 声门的 glottal: h.喉音Placemanner Voicing Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal VL p t k Stops or plosives VD b d g VL f W s F hFrica-tivesVD v T z V VL (tF ) tF Affri-cates VD (dV) dV Nasals VD m n N Liquids VD l, r Glides VD w j 重点 Classification of vowels 元音的分类 Monop
16、hthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音 Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音ei, ai, aU, EU, Ri, iE, ZE, UE.单元音 前高后高前低后低A 3rd criterion According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding 圆唇 rounded: u:, u, C:, C; 非圆唇 unrounded: I:, I, e, Z, A, B, E:, E, Q, B:. 练习 划线 A fricative pay horse tough ri
17、ce breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal train bang leaf limb A stop drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze A central vowel: mad lot but boot word A front vowel: reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: who he bus her hit boss bar
18、 walk A back vowel: paid reap fool top good fathervd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing Robber either2. Phonology 音位学 (Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.)解答题
19、 Phone 音素, phoneme 音位, allophone 音位变体A phoneme- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in. 如 peak 和 speak,top 和 stop
20、 中 p,t 的发音。要会分析P in the word peak is an aspirated p. 送气音P in the word speak is an unaspirated p. 不送气音S is an fricative 膜擦音,另外,同化规则,爆破,但不能写浊化Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast-different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic cont
21、rast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt.要用音位学解释 综合题:互补分配 Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l but the g sound is pronouncedin their corresponding forms signat
22、ure, designation, paradigmatic. Suprasegmental features-the phonemic features 因素特征 that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features 超音段特征 include stress, intonation, and tone.Stress:word stress,sentence stres
23、sWord stress:The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: import, increase, rebel, restore,record.Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:green
24、house, blackbird, hot-dog. The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: dining-room; reading-room.Sentence stress: the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numera
25、ls and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed:He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. Tone:Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates
26、 of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. Intonation: When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively 全体的 known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:f
27、alling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question 疑问)the fall-rise tone (implied message 含蓄的)For instance,“Thats not the book he wants.”Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.a) It may indicate different sentence
28、 types by pitch 倾向的 direction. b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didnt come because of Marry” Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units, it means: Marry
29、 was the reason why John didnt come. c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g. Jack came yesterday by rain.重点突出d) Its attitudinal functions.Falling tone - matter-of-fact statement, downright assertion, commands.Rising tone -politeness, encouragem
30、ent, pleading. Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.具体的意义必须要放到一个文本中进行分析。Chapter 3 Morphology(形位学) Word is the smallest free form found in language.(选择 / 判断题)The most important component of a w
31、ord structure is the morpheme(词素) the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.E.g. “reader“ consists of two morphemes: read and -er; “boys“ consists of two morphemes: boy and -s.Allomorph(同位语素)map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz mouse-mice aiox-oxen n tooth-te
32、eth sheep-sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. Free morpheme(自由语素)-is one that can be a word by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance.Bound morpheme(附着语素) -is one that must be attached to another one, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”, “dis-” in “dis
33、close”, “-ed” in “recorded”, etc. Root(词根) : nouns, verbs, adjectives, or prepositions.Affix(词缀): bound morphemesPrefix(前缀) - morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. un-, dis-, anti-, ir-, etc.Suffix(后缀) - morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion,
34、 etc.Derivational morphemes(派生语素)- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern-modernize, length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes(曲折语素 )- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense,
35、 number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,E.g. a) number: tables; apples; cars b) person, tense: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/Johns prefix root suffixE.g Antidisestablishmentarianisms inflectional morpheme Compounds(合成词 )Noun compou
36、nds:daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)Verb compounds:brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compounds:maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)Preposition compounds:into (P+P) throughout (P+P) When the two words are in the same grammati
37、cal category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-blackWhen the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocketCompounds have different stress patt
38、erns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green houseThe meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1. The origin of Chomskys theory: Philosophy, psychology,Mathematics.2. Phrase structure rule: NP:noun phrase; VP:verb phrase; AP: adj
39、ective phrase; PP: Preposition Phrase.Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj. The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det) + N +(PP)e.g. those peo
40、ple, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.3. XP rules: X refers to N, V, A, P.4. The S ru
41、les: S refers to Sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1. Naming theory: the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. It can also describe as a social convention 社会习俗. Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the
42、real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred2. Contextualism 语境主义: representative:J.R. Firth 约翰鲁伯特弗斯 The contextualism view of meaning is based on the presumption 推测 that one can derive meaning
43、 from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context 情景语境 and the linguistic context 语言语境. 3. Behaviorism: It is linked with psychological interest. And Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech and the practical ev
44、ents 实际情况. 4. Sense and Reference:Sense: it is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. The relationship between word and word. Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;
45、 it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between word and sound image.5. Major sense relations: Synonymy 同义; Polysemy 一词多义; Homonymy 同音异义; Hyponymy 包含;Antonymy 反义Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of
46、meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 1) Dialectal synonyms- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline 2) Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms
47、that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuseof, chargewith, rebukefor; 5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,AntonymyGradable antonyms-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.
48、g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, Complementary antonyms-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, Relational opposites-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below