1、1. Leechs 7 types of meanings(1). conceptual meaning (logical meaning, cognitive meaning, or denotative meaning, 外延意义) It is denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. Denotative meaning is the objective reflection of world.(2). Co
2、nnotative meaning（内涵意义）Connotative meaning is what is communicated by virtual of what language refers to. It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in ones mind.The characteristics:A. in cannot stand by itself and is always dependent on denotative meaningB. connotation
3、s may be different according to different person, age, society, country or time.C. In different languages, some words may have the same connotative meaning.D. Connotation is unstable.(3) social or stylistic meaningSocial meaning is the meaning that a piece of language conveys about the social circum
4、stances of its use.(4) affective meaningAffective meaning is connected with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.(5) reflected meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression is called reflected meaning, like euphemistic expressi
5、on.(6) collocative meaning（组合意义，like handsome woman:仪态端庄）Collocative meaning is what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(7) thematic meaning (主题意义，强调句子的组织和语序)Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the message is or
6、ganized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Referential meaningThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Semantic triangle: word (concept) thing4 ways to explain a word, like deskA. by pointing to a desk and s
7、aying this is the deskB. by describing its shape and feature or functionC. paraphrase D. translationSense(涵义 )-reference（指称） connotation(内涵)-denotation(外延)（but not every word has a reference, like god, ghost）3. (1)synonymy (strict synonymy and loose synonymy)Strict synonymy refers to the situation i
8、n which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all possible contexts of use.Loose synonymy or near synonymy may be substitutable in particular contexts, but not substitutable across a range of contexts.(2) antonymyG: gradable CV: converse CP: conplementary(3) hyponymy(上下位关系)4. (1) A proposit
9、ion is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Logic connectives and symbolsOne-place connective: negation two-place connective: conjunction disjunction implication equivalence argument(主目) and predicate(谓词) in Socrates in a man are Socrates and
10、man.(2) universal quantifiers(全称量词) existential quantifier(存在量词)5. Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is ba
11、sed on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.Construal o
12、perations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. (phycologically)Image schema is a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. (a center-periphery schema, a containment schema, a
13、cycle schema, a force schema, a link schema, a part-whole schema, a path schema, a scale schema, a verticality schema)Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of the other.Target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor. A source domain is
14、the means that we use in order to describe the experience.Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc.Structural metaphor plays the most important role because it allows us to go beyond orienta
15、tion and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation. 6. It is self-evident that language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. The input may co
16、me in written or spoken form. Ideally, materials at all levels should provede frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and varied.According to Krashens input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. (i+1 principle)7. The type of language c
17、onstructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learners native language.8. Based on this distinction, we assume tha
18、t syllabus design is more of a pedagogical nature, whereas curriculum development is an educational planning issue. (1) Structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures.(2) Situaltional syllabus dose not have a strong linguistic basis, yet it c
19、an be assumed that the situationalists accept the viem that language is used for communication. (3) Communicative syllabus aims at the learners communicative competence. (4) Task-based syllabus are more concerned with the classroom processed which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge
20、or skills that students are supposed to master.Current trends in syllabus design:The co-existence of the old and the new; the emphasis on the learning process; the inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus; the emergence of the multi-syllabus.9. The study of the roles that the native langua
21、ge plays in known as the research of language transfer.Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what dose not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.Gradually CA
22、was replaced by the error analysis movement, a major claim of which is that many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference. 5 errors (omissions, additions, double markings, misformations, misorderings) 10. A corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. La
23、nguage corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. (1) general corpora: a general reference corpus is not a collection of material from different specialist areas technical, dialectal, juvenile, etc. it is a collection of material which is bro
24、adly homogeneous, but which is gathered from a variety of sources so that the individuality of a source is obscured, unless the researcher isolates a particular text.(2) specialized corpora: this kind of corpus is useful for language for specific purposes.(3) sample corpora: this is a kind of genre-
25、based corpus. It is a collection of a large number of short extracts randomly selected from all kinds of genres.(4) monitor corpora: this kind of corpus in gigantic, ever moving store of text.11. validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used succe
26、ssfully for the purposes for which it is intended. (content validity refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out toa measure. Construct validity assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie
27、 the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test feflect the essential aspects of the theory on which the test is based.)Reliability means stability or consistency of test scores.Test distinguished by use: (achievement tests or attainment tests, aim
28、s to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular couse of study or program of instruction. proficiency tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform. aptitude tests, i
29、s designed to measure the learners probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn. diagnostic tests, is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know, to diagnose their areas of difficulty, and to enable the teacher to identify their specific areas of we
30、aknesses and problems so that he is able to plan the most appropriate remedial program. placement tests, is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in program or course. It aims to sort new students into teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at approximately the sam
31、e level.)Tests distinguished by the standard for measuring( criterion-referenced tests, norm-referenced tests)Tests distinguished by linguistic levels and skills Tests distinguished by the system of scoring ( subjective tests and objective tests)Tests distinguished by the nature of the test ( discre
32、te-point tests integrative tests)Standard deviation is the most common measure of the dispersion of a series of scores and the most stable index of variability.Percentile ranks of any given score if a value indicating the percent of cases falling ar or below that score. 12. Types of research categor
33、ized by the duration of the study (in longitudinal study, an individual or group is studied over a period of time. Cross-sectional study refers to the study of a group of different individuals or subjects at s single point in time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language development.)Types of research categorized by the design and methodology (quantitative research is also called positivistic research. Qualitative research is also called naturalistic, ethnographic or postpositivistic research.)
