1、The Law of Contract（新加坡合同法）SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 导论8.1.1 Contract law in Singapore is largely based on the common law of contract in England. Unlike its neighbours Malaysia and Brunei, following Independence in 1965, Singapores Parliament made no attempt to codify Singapores law of contract. Accord
2、ingly, much of the law of contract in Singapore remains in the form of judge-made rules. In some circumstances, these judge-made rules have been modified by specific statutes.新加坡的合同法基本上是以英国关于合同的普通法为范式而构建的。与它的邻居马来西亚和文莱不同的是，新加坡在 1965 年独立之后并没有试图编纂新加坡的合同法，因此新加坡的合同法仍保持 判例法规则 的模式。在某些情况下，判例法的规则已经被特定的成文法所修改
3、。8.1.2 Many of these statutes are English in origin. To begin with, 13 English commercial statutes have been incorporated as part of the Statutes of the Republic of Singapore by virtue of s 4 of the Application of English Law Act (Cap 7A, 1993 Rev Ed). These are listed in Part II of the First Schedu
4、le of this Act. Other statutes, eg the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act (Cap 53B, 2002 Rev Ed), are modelled upon（仿效） English statutes. There are also other areas where statutory development based on non-English models has taken place, eg the Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act (Cap 52A, 2
5、004 Rev Ed) (which was largely drawn from fair trading legislation enacted in Alberta and Sasketchewan).许多此类立法起源于英国。首先来说，有 13 个英国商事法律根据英国法律适用法（Application of English Law Act) 第四节（Cap 7A, 1993 年修订）的规定直接成为新加坡共和国的立法。这些立法罗列在该法的第二部分的第一附表里。其他立法，如合同第三方权利法（Contracts( Rights of Third Parties) Act）(Cap 53B, 2
6、002 修订)，系模仿英国立法制定的。在某些领域也有立法采用非英国模式的情形，比如消费者保护（公平交易）法(Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act)（Cap 52A, 2004 年修订）。该法大致上参照加拿大阿尔伯塔与萨卡其万两省的公平交易法制定。8.1.3 The rules developed in the Singapore courts do, nevertheless, bear a very close resemblance to those developed under English common law. Indeed, where
7、there is no Singapore authority specifically on point, it will usually be assumed that the position will, in the first instance, be no different from that in England.即使是新加坡的法庭本身所发展出的规则也同英国普通法的同类规则有非常大的相似性。如果关于某个问题新加坡本身没有权威规则时，人们就会理所当然地首先假定新加坡的立场同英国法的立场没有什么区别.SECTION 2 OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE 要约和承诺Agree
8、ment 协议8.2.1 A contract is essentially an agreement between two or more parties, the terms of which affect their respective rights and obligations which are enforceable at law. Whether the parties have reached agreement, or a meeting of the minds, is objectively ascertained from the facts. The conce
9、pts of offer and acceptance provide in many, albeit not all, cases the starting point for analysing whether agreement has been reached.合同在本质上是双方或者多方之间的协议，该协议条款涉及到当事人各自的权利义务并且具有法律约束力。至于当事人之间是否达成协议，或合意（consensus ad idem）, 应通过对事实的客观分析而确定。在大多数但并非所有的情况下，要约与承诺的概念是分析当事人是否达成协议的起点。Offer 要约8.2.2 An offer is a
10、 promise, or other expression of willingness, by the offeror to be bound on certain specified terms upon the unqualified acceptance of these terms by the person to whom the offer is made (the offeree). Provided the other formation elements (ie consideration and intention to create legal relations) a
11、re present, the acceptance of an offer results in a valid contract.一个要约即是“要约人” 发出的一项允诺或其他形式的自愿意思表示，表明经“受要约人”无条件承诺某些确定的条款，“要约人” 即受这些条款的约束。如合同成立的其他要素亦得满足（如对价和设立法律关系的意旨），对要约的承诺会导致一个有效的合同。8.2.3 Whether any particular statement amounts to an offer depends on the intention with which it is made. An offer
12、must be made with the intention to be bound. On the other hand, if a person is merely soliciting offers or requesting for information, without any intention to be bound, at best, he or she would be making an invitation to treat. Under the objective test, a person may be said to have made an offer if
13、 his or her statement (or conduct) induces a reasonable person to believe that the person making the offer intends to be bound by the acceptance of the alleged offer, even if that person in fact had no such intention.一个特定的表述是否构成要约有赖于表述的意旨。要约必须具有受拘束的意旨。如果某人只是引诱他人作出要约，或者只是询问情况，而并没有受拘束的意旨，那他或她最多只是在作出要约
14、邀请。按照客观标准，如果某人的表述（或者行为）致使一个通情达理的人相信发出要约者具有在该要约被承诺后接受拘束的意旨，则即使该人实际上没有此种意旨，他也被认为是发出了一项要约。Termination of Offer 要约终止8.2.4 An offer may be terminated by withdrawal at any time prior to its acceptance, provided there is communication, of the withdrawal to the offeree, whether by the offeror or through som
15、e reliable source. Rejection of an offer, which includes the making of a counter-offer or a variation of the original terms, terminates the offer. In the absence of an express stipulation as to time, an offer will lapse after a reasonable time. What this amounts to depends on the particular facts of
16、 the case. Death of the offeror, if known to the offeree, would render the offer incapable of being accepted by the offeree. Even in the absence of such knowledge, death of either party terminates any offer which has a personal element.要约在承诺之前的任何时候都可以撤回，只要由要约人亲自或者通过其他可信的渠道向受要约人发出撤回通知。对要约的拒绝导致要约失效，这包
17、括发出反要约或者改变原要约的条款。如要约对时效没有明确规定，则该要约在合理时间之后失效。这种情况到底何所指，这要根据案件的具体事实来分析。如果要约人死亡且此事实已为受要约人知晓，则要约就不能够被后者接受。任何一方死亡的事实，即使不为他方知晓，也会导致任何具有人身因素的要约消灭。Acceptance 承诺8.2.5 An offer is accepted by the unconditional and unqualified assent to its terms by the offeree. This assent may be expressed through words or co
18、nduct, but cannot be inferred from mere silence save in very exceptional circumstances.受要约人对要约条款无条件和无保留的同意构成对要约的承诺。同意可由言语或行为来表示，但除非在极其例外的情况下，缄默不能被认为是同意。8.2.6 As a general rule, acceptance must be communicated to the offeror, although a limited exception exists where the acceptance is sent by post an
19、d this method of communication is either expressly or impliedly authorised. This exception, known as the postal acceptance rule, stipulates that acceptance takes place at the point when the letter of acceptance is posted, whether or not it was in fact received by the offeror.一个总的原则是承诺应该被通知到要约人，但如果承诺
20、是通过邮寄方式且此种方式被认为是或者明确或者默示地许可的，则构成一项例外。这个例外被称为“投邮承诺规则”，它规定承诺信一经付邮，无论要约人是否实际上收到，承诺均告生效。Certainty 确定性8.2.7 Before the agreement may be enforced as a contract, its terms must be sufficiently certain. At the least, the essential terms of the agreement should be specified. Beyond this, the courts may resol
21、ve apparent vagueness or uncertainty by reference to the acts of the parties, a previous course of dealing between the parties, trade practice or to a standard of reasonableness. On occasion, statutory provision of contractual details may fill the gaps. For more on implication of terms, see Paragrap
22、hs 8.5.5 to 8.5.8 below.在协议被作为合同执行以前，它的条款必须足够确定。至少，协议的关键条款应予明确规定。在此之外，法庭可以通过诉诸当事方的行为、当事方之间已有的习惯作法、贸易惯例或者合理标准来解决协议条款含糊不清或不确定的问题。某些情况下，关于合同细节的成文法规定也可以用来填补协议条款的空白。关于条款的问题，可进一步参见第8.5.5 节和 8.5.8 节。Completeness 完整性8.2.8 An incomplete agreement also cannot amount to an enforceable contract. Agreements made
23、 subject to contract may be considered incomplete if the intention of the parties, as determined from the facts, was not to be legally bound until the execution of a formal document or until further agreement is reached.不完整的协议不能构成具有执行力的合同。如果协议规定“以合同为准”，且由事实可推断出的当事方的意旨表明在正式合同或者进一步的协议达成之前，当事方无意受到法律拘束，
24、则该协议为不完整的协议。Electronic Transactions Act 电子交易8.2.9 The Electronic Transactions Act (Cap 88, 1999 Rev Ed) (ETA) clarifies that, except with respect to the requirement of writing or signatures in wills, negotiable instruments, indentures, declarations of trust or powers of attorney, contracts involving
25、 immovable property and documents of title (s 4(1), electronic records may be used in expressing an offer or acceptance of an offer in contract formation (s 11). A declaration of intent between contracting parties may also be made in the form of an electronic record (s 12). The ETA also clarifies wh
26、en an electronic record may be attributed to a particular person (s 13) and how the time and place of despatch and receipt of an electronic record are to be determined (s 15).电子交易法（Cap 88, 1999 年修正）阐明，电子记录可用来在合同订立过程中表述要约或者对要约的承诺（见第 11 条），但是这不适用于对遗嘱、流通票据、债券、委托声明或授权书、不动产合同以及所有权凭证（见第 4（11）条）等文件的书面或签字要求
27、。SECTION 3 CONSIDERATION 对价Definition 定义8.3.1 A promise contained in an agreement is not enforceable unless it is supported by consideration or it is made in a written document made under seal. Consideration is something of value (as defined by the law), requested for by the party making the promise
28、 (the promisor) and provided by the party who receives it (the promisee), in exchange for the promise that the promisee is seeking to enforce. Thus, it could consist of either some benefit received by the promisor, or some detriment to the promisee. This benefit/detriment may consist of a counter pr
29、omise or a completed act.一项允诺，如果不为对价支持或者不由书面盖印作出，则不具法律执行力。对价是（法律界定的）某种价值，为提出允诺的一方（“允诺人”）所要求，并由接受允诺的一方（“受允诺人 ”）所提供以用来交换对前项允诺的执行。故此，它可以是允诺人收到的某种利益，或者受允诺人承受的某种损害。这种利益/损害可以表现为对待允诺或者已完成的行为。Reciprocity 互惠8.3.2 The idea of reciprocity that underlies the requirement for consideration means that there has to
30、 be some causal relation between the consideration and the promise itself. Thus, consideration cannot consist of something that was already done before the promise was made. However, the courts do not always adopt a strict chronological approach to the analysis.体现于对价要求之中的是互惠关系这一原则，它要求对价和允诺之间有某种原因关系。
31、因此，对价不能是允诺作出之前已经完成的事情。但是，法院并不总是严格地忠实于这种以时间先后为准的推论方式参见 Pao On v Lau Yiu Long 1980 AC 614, 该判例所确立的原则已经被新加坡上诉法院在 Sim Tony v Lim Ah Ghee t/a Phil Real Estate acquire, own, hold and develop property; hold a common seal; and may do and suffer such other acts and things as any body corporate may lawfully d
32、o and suffer - see s 5(1). Section 5(2) also extends s 41 of the Companies Act to apply to a limited liability partnership.按照新加坡法律有限责任合伙（limited liability partnership）也是一种公司实体（参见有限责任合伙法 2005）。它可以以自己的名义提起诉讼或成为被告；取得、拥有、占有和发展财产；设公司印章；以及任何可以进行和负担任何其他公司实体可以合法进行和负担的行为（见第 5（1）条）。第 5(2) 条亦将公司法第 41 条适用于有限责任合
33、伙。SECTION 7 PRIVITY OF CONTRACT 合同的相对性Third party Enforcement of Contractual Rights Generally not Permitted一般不允许第三方执行合同权利8.7.1 As a general proposition, only persons who are party (ie privy) to a contract may enforce rights or obligations arising from that contract. This is sometimes referred to as
34、the privity rule.总的立场是，只有合同的当事人（“相对人” ）才能执行合同项下的权利和义务。这在有时候被称为“合同的相对性规则” 。8.7.2 A third party who is not privy to a contract is generally not allowed to bring any legal action in his or her own name for breach of contract against a contracting party who fails to perform his or her contractual obliga
35、tions, even if such failure of performance has caused the third party to suffer a loss.第三方不是合同的相对人，因而一般不能针对合同的当事方的未能履约的行为提起法律诉讼，即使第三方因为此种履行不能而招致损失。When is Someone Party or Privy to a Contract? 何时成为合同当事人或相对方8.7.3 There is no clear definition as to when a person is/is not privy to a contract. Generall
36、y, a party who is an offeror or offeree will be privy to the contract. However, it seems that merely being mentioned in the contract is not enough.关于某个人何时是或者不是相对人没有清晰的法律定义。一般而言，要约人或受要约人会成为合同的相对人。但是，仅仅是在合同中被提到名字尚不足以使该人成为相对人。8.7.4 It is, nevertheless, possible to have a multilateral contract where the
37、re are multiple offerees (one or more of whom accept the offer on behalf of the others) or where there are multiple offerors (one or more of whom make the offer on behalf of the others). In either case, each offeree or offeror is a joint party to the contract and the privity rule will not apply to t
38、hem.但也可能有多边合同的情形，这是因为有着多个受要约人（其中某个或多个代表其他人接受要约）或者多个要约人（其中某个或者多个代表其他人发出要约）的存在。上述任何情形下，每个受要约人人或者要约人都是合同的连带当事方，而合同的相对性规则不适用于他们。Non-statutory Exceptions to the Privity Rule 相对性原则的非立法例外8.7.5 The privity rule is not absolute. It is subject to many exceptions. Apart from the possibility of a multilateral o
39、r multi-party contract (mentioned above), some other exceptions can be found in the law relating to: (a) agency; (b) trusts; or (c) land (in relation to covenants which run with the land or lease). For an in depth discussion of these other legal techniques to circumvent the privity rule, please see
40、Chapters 15 and 18.合同的相对性原则并非绝对，而是有着很多例外。除上述提到的多边或者多方合同之外，下列方面的法律也能找到各种例外：（a）代理；（b）信托；和（c）土地（关系到虽土地或租约转移的合同债务）。关于其他法律对相对性规则的限制方面更深入的探讨见第十五和十八章。Statutory Exceptions to the Privity Rule 相对性原则的立法例外8.7.6 There are also statutory exceptions. Most of these are only applicable to specific and narrowly defi
41、ned cases. Two examples of such statutes include: (a) the Bills of Exchange Act (Cap 23, 1985 Rev Ed) see Chapter 22 on Banking Law; and (b) the Bills of Lading Act (Cap 384, 1994 Rev Ed) see Chapter 25 on Shipping Law. Of more general application, the Singapore Parliament enacted the Contracts (Rig
42、hts of Third Parties) Act (Cap 53B, 2002 Rev Ed) in 2001.还有一些立法规定的例外，但其大多数适用于非常具体的和狭窄界定的情况。举两个例子：（a）汇票法（Cap 23，1985 修订）见第 x 章关于银行法；和（b）提单法(Cap 384, 1994 修订) 见第 x 章关于海运法 。关于更一般性的适用，见新加坡议会在 2001 年制定的 合同项下第三方权利法（Cap 53B, 2002 修订）。Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 合同项下第三方权利法8.7.7 Section 1 provide
43、s that the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act has no retrospective effect - it cannot apply to any contract formed before 1 January 2002. Section 1 also provides that the Act does not apply to any contracts which were formed on or after 1 January 2002, but before 1 July 2002, unless the contrac
44、ting parties expressly provided in their contract for it to do so. Contracts formed on or after 1 July 2002 are always subject to the Act.合同项下第三方权利法第一条规定该法无溯及既往的效力，即它不能适用于 2002年一月一日之前成立的合同。该法规定其自身也不适用于 2002 年一月一日或之后、2002 年七月一日之前成立的合同，除非当事人在他们的合同中明确规定适用该法。2002 年七月一日之后成立的合同总是受该法制约。8.7.8 Where the Act
45、applies, it gives a third party a statutory right to enforce a term of a contract against a party who is in breach of his or her obligations under the contract (the promisor), even though even though the third party is a volunteer who has not provided any contractual consideration - see s 2(5).当本法适用
46、时，它赋予一个第三方以法定权利，使得后者可以就某个合同条款对违反其合同义务的当事人（“允诺人” ）予以执行，即使第三方是个没有提供任何合同对价的第三者。见第 2(5)条。8.7.9 T his may occur if either: (a) the contract expressly provides that the third party may enforce a term of the contract in his or her own right - s 2(1)(a); or (b) the contract, purports to confer a benefit on
47、the third party - s 2(1)(b). However, s 2(1)(b) is qualified: a third party will not be granted the direct statutory right of suit in the absence of an express provision permitting him or her to do so, if, on a proper construction of the contract, it appears that the parties did not intend the term
48、to be enforceable by the third party. - s 2(2).这种情况之发生是因为：（a）合同明确规定第三方自身有权执行某个合同条款见第2(1)(a)条；或者，（b）合同“意图对第三方授予利益”- 见第 2(1)(b)。但是第 2(1)(b)是受到限制的：如无明确合同规定，且根据对合同的恰当解释显示出当事人无意给与第三方法定的执行权利，第三方即没有直接的法定权利提起诉讼。- 见第 2（2）条。8.7.10 This statutory right of enforcement is not just limited to cases where the prom
49、isor is under an obligation to act to confer a positive benefit on the third party. Negative benefits, such as the benefit of a term excluding or limiting the third partys legal liabilities to the promisor, may also be enforced -s 2(5).但法定的执行权利并不限于允诺人有义务采取行动授予第三方积极利益的情形。“消极”利益，例如免除或限制第三方对允诺人之法律责任的利益，也可以得到执行。- 见第2（5）条。8.7.11 The third partys statutory right of enforcement against the promisor is qualified in a number of ways. First, the third partys statutory right of recovery
