1、Unit 10 Doing FTAs in Conversation,会话中的威胁面子行为,Contents,10.1 The notion of face 10.2 Face-threatening acts 10.3 Strategies of doing FTAs 10.4 Factors behind the strategy choice,10.1 The notion of face - Goffman,Goffman (1967) defines “face” as “the positive social value a person effectively claims fo
2、r himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes.” Brown and Levinson (1978/1987) developed Goffmans (1967) notion of face into the well-known Face Theory (FT for short).,10.1 The notion of face-
3、Brown and Levinson,According to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987), face means the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself or herself, or the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.Face consists of two aspects:,positive face,neg
4、ative face,Negative face 消极面子,the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-interference, i.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition. e.g. threat, warning, order, etc.消极面子是指社会成员希望其行动不被别人干涉，即有行动的自由和自主决定的自由。（何自然，陈新仁，2004）,Positive face 积极面子,the positive consistent se
5、lf-image or “personality” (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants. e.g. Its very kind of you. 积极面子是指每个社会成员希望他的愿望受人顺从，自我形象被人欣赏和赞许。（何自然，陈新仁，2004）,10.2 Face-threatening acts,在会话交际中，以上两种面子都可能受到威胁，例如： 儿子：妈，我想出去玩一下。母亲：作业做完再说。 室友：哎，这个铃声挺好
6、听的。我：哪里好听了。 Four types: Acts threatening the hearers positive face Acts threatening the hearers negative faceActs threatening the speakers positive faceActs threatening the speakers negative face,Acts threatening the hearers positive face,indicating (potentially) that the speaker does not care about
7、 the hearers feelings, interests, wants, etc. An act that show the speakers negative evaluation of some aspects of hearers positive face. E.g. disapproval, criticism, etc. An act that show speaker does not care about hearers positive face; e.g. mention taboo topics. S shows non-cooperation in an act
8、ivity, e.g. interrupting Hs talk; S uses address terms and other status-marked identifications in initial encounters in an offensive or embarrassing way, intentionally or accidently.,Acts threatening the hearers negative face,Impose some future act on H, and in doing so exert some pressure on H to d
9、o (or refrain from doing) the act. E.g. orders and request, suggestions and advice, reminders, threat, warning; Predicate some positive act of S toward H, and in doing so put some pressure on H to accept or reject them, and possibly to incur a debt. E.g. offers; Acts that indicate some desire of S t
10、oward H or Hs goods, giving H reason to think that he may have to protect the object of Ss desire, or give it to S. e.g. compliments and expressions of envy or admiration.,Acts threatening the speakers positive face,Acts that directly damage Ss positive face, such as apologies, acceptance of complim
11、ent or praise, self-humiliation, and self-contradiction.,Acts threatening the speakers negative face,Acts such as expressing thanks, acceptance of Hs thanks or Hs apology, excuses, unwilling promises and offers, and the like.,10.2 Face-threatening acts,Two points to be noted: 1. an overlap in this c
12、lassification of FTAs, because some FTAs intrinsically threaten both negative and positive face (e.g. interruptions, threats, requests for personal information); 2. Cultures vary in the rating of illocutionary acts in terms of face threat.,10.3 Strategies of doing FTAs,Read Figure 1 on p. 132 Five s
13、trategies: Without redressive action, baldly/ bald on-record直接性策略 Positive politeness 积极礼貌策略 Negative politeness 消极礼貌策略 Off-record 间接性策略 Dont do the FTA 不施行面子威胁行为,Bald on recordmeans doing it in the most direct, clear, unambiguous way possible. 不使用补救策略，公开的实行威胁面子行为，即说话者用直接公开的方式向听话人提出建议、请求、给予或邀请。An MP
14、 will do FTA baldly on record if： Maximum efficiency.情况紧急，交际效率居于面子需求之上e.g. Watch out! Perceive very small threat to the hearers face.对听话人威胁较小或没有威胁e.g. Dont be sad. Ss power over H.说话人权势远远高于听话人e.g. Bring me a bottle of wine.,Positive politeness is approach-based, which conveys that the potential face
15、 threat is minimized by the assurance that the speaker in general wants to satisfy at least some of the hearers wants, and makes the hearer feel good and feel that his value is shared. 通过强调与听话人的共同性来减少面子威胁程度，满足听话人积极面子需求，使听话人所要求的个人形象与说话人言语中体现的达到一致。 it includes 12 strategies:Claim common ground between
16、 S and H. 宣称双方共同点 Notice/attend to H. 关注听话人 e.g. Goodness, you cut your hair. Exaggerate approval with H. 夸张自己对听话人的赞同等 e.g. Your performance is superb. Its the best Ive seen. Intensify interest to H. (to attract or please H) 提高听话人兴趣 e.g. You may find my story most interesting. Its about.,Use in-grou
17、p identity markers (nicknames, dialects, ellipsis, etc.) 表明具有同样的团体身份 e.g. 1. Help me with my bag here, will you mate/buddy?2. Mind if I smoke? Seek agreement or avoid disagreement(by choosing safe topic, using positive echoes, hedging, etc.). 寻求一致或避免分歧 e.g. 1. A: Mary won a big prize.B: A big prize!
18、2. Its really beautiful, in a way. Presuppose/raise/assert common ground. 假设或提出共同点 E.g. I really had a hard time learning to drive, you know.,Convey that S and H are cooperators. 表示伙伴关系 Indicates that S and H are cooperating, and share goals in some domain. Assert or presuppose Ss knowledge of and c
19、oncern for Hs wants. 肯定或预设说话人知道或关心听话人的想法 e.g. I know you cant bear parties. But this one will really be good. Make a promise or offer. E.g. You can use my car, if you like. Be optimistic. E.g. Youll lend me your lawnmover for the weekend, I hope/wont you. Include both S and H in the activity. 将交际双方包
20、括在行动内 E.g. Shall we dance? Give or ask for reasons. E.g. Why dont we go to the seashore! Assume/ assert reciprocity. 肯定互惠 e.g. Ill do X for you if you do Y for me.,Negative politeness is avoidance-based, which conveys that the hearer is assured that the speaker recognizes and respects the hearers ne
21、gative-face wants and will not interfere with the hearers freedom of action. 说话人在言语行为方面尊重听话人行为的权利和自由，不把自己的意志强加给听话人。 It includes 9 strategies:Be direct. Be conventionally indirect. 利用规约性间接手段 e.g. Can/Could/Will/Would you pass the salt?Dont presume or assume. Use hedges or questions. 使用模糊限制语或疑问句 E.g.
22、I suppose/guess/think that Harry is coming.Do me a favor, will you? This may be a bit troublesome, but,Dont coerce H. 避免强迫听话人 Be pessimistic. e.g. 1. I dont imagine/suppose thered be any chance/possibility/hope of you winning the post.2. You dont have any university envelopes, do you by any chance?
23、Minimize the imposition. 减小要求 E.g. 1. Could you have a taste of that cake.2. Wait a second, please. Give deference(using more formal or respectful expressions). 表示尊敬 E.g. 1. We look forward very much to dining(?eating) with you.2. Would you care for (?like) a sandwich, sir?,Communicate Ss unwillingn
24、ess to impinge on H. 表明说话人不想强加的愿望 Apologize. e.g. 1. I know this is a bore, but. (admit the impingement)2. I dont want to bother you, but(indicate reluctant)3. I can think of nobody else who could do this, but (give some overwhelming reason)4. Excuse me, but (beg forgiveness) Impersonalize S and H.
25、避免使用人称代词 E.g. 1. Close the door/ The door must be closed. (?for me)2. If it is possible(? If you can)Redress other wants of Hs. 给听话人提供某些补偿 以抵消听话人面子威胁损失，如承认蒙受恩惠，承认欠债等. E.g. 1. I will be eternally grateful if you.2. Ill never be able to repay you if you.,Off-record is actually the strategy of giving h
26、ints, doing the FTA in an indirect way. 非公开实行面子威胁行为， Brown和Levinson把它视为最礼貌的策略，即使用间接或委婉的语言以消除听话人强加之感。例如： Give hints 暗示 e.g. 1. Its cold in here. (Shut the window.)2.What a hot day! (How about a drink?) Understate 低调陈述 e.g. A: What do you think of Harry? B: Nothing wrong with him. (I dont think he is
27、very good.) Use tautologies 同义反复 e.g. Woman: My husband doesnt stir a finger to help me with housework. Man: Women are women. (女人总是唠唠叨叨),“借笔”的五种礼貌策略,施行面子威胁行为,公开的施行,非公开的施行: “ I forgot my pen.”,直接施行: “ Give me a pen.”,使用补偿策略,积极礼貌: “ How about letting me use your pen ?”,消极礼貌: “ Could you lend me a pen
28、?”,不施行面子威胁行为,自己到处找笔,10.4 Factors behind the strategy choice,人们在交际活动中希望彼此维护对方的面子，并随面子威胁程度的增大而采用较高程度的礼貌策略。（何自然，陈新仁，2002） Thus, the choice of a strategy for doing a FTA entails the consideration of the weightiness of the FTA (Wx), which is diagramed as follows:,10.4 Factors behind the strategy choice,Wx = D (S, H) + P (H, S) + Rx,the social distance between the speaker and the hearer,the power of H over S,the absolute ranking of the imposition x in a give culture,THANK YOU,
