1、第3章 管理信息系统的技术基础,硬件技术基础软件技术基础数据库技术基础网络技术基础Internet技术基础,3.1 计算机与信息处理,要理解计算机是如何处理信息的,首先必须了解构成计算机系统的各个部件和计算机是如何工作的。,1. 计算机系统,(1) 系统硬件结构,(2) 计算机中的数据表示,所有的符号、图象、字都是用二进制串表示的。 位(bit):二进制中的每一位称为一个bit, represents either a 0 or a 1. 字节(byte):计算机中以8个位作为一个存储单位,称为字节(byte). 数的表示:每一个都可表示为二的次方之和,字符的表示: EBCDIC: Exten
2、ded Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. This binary code, developed by IBM in the 1950s, represents every number, alphabetic character, or special character with 8 bits. ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange, Which was developed by the American National Standards Institute (AN
3、SI) to provide a standard code that could be used by many different manufacturers to make machinery compatible. ASCII was originally designed as a 7-bit code, but most computers use 8-bit versions.,EBCDIC is used in IBM and other mainframe computers, whereas ASCII is used in data transmission, PCs,
4、and some larger computers. 汉字的表示: 图象的表示:像素(pixel: picture element),亮度和色度,1024*768 VGA,more than 700,000 pixels. 声音的表示:,(3) 容量单位,kilobyte : 1024 byte megabyte: Approximately one million bytes. Gigabyte: Approximately one billion bytes.,2. 中央处理单元(CPU)和主存储器(30),三类总线 数据线 地址线 控制线,(2) 主存储器,三个功能:存储部分或全部执行程
5、序;存储操作系统;保存正在运行的程序所使用的数据。以字节为单位,每个字节都编有地址。数据和程序必须装入内存才能被计算机使用。,(3) 半导体存储器的类型,半导体器件: A semiconductor is an integrated circuit made by printing thousands and even millions of tiny transistors on a small silicon chip. RAM: random access memory ROM: read-only memory PROM: programmable read-only memory,
6、can be programmed once 降低成本,提高灵活性 EPROM: erasable programmable read-only memory, the program can be erased and reprogrammed. Used for device control, such as in robots, where the program may have to be changed on a routine basis.,(4) 算术-逻辑单元和控制单元,算术-逻辑单元:算术-逻辑,运算,比大小 控制单元:协调和控制计算机系统的其它部分。一次读一条指令,指挥其
7、它部分完成。 机器周期:执行一条机器指令所需完成的一系列操作,包括指令周期和执行周期。 指令周期:从主存中读取指令并解码,将操作码和操作数分别放入各自的寄存器中。 执行周期:按操作码的要求对操作数执行操作。,3. 计算机硬件的发展,(1)四代计算机硬件 经历了四个发展阶段或四代,每一代都是以一种元器件技术为标志。第一代:电子管技术,1946-1956 第二代:晶体管,1957-1963 第三代:集成电路,1964-1979 第四代:超大规模集成电路,1980-现在,(2)微处理器与芯片 Very large-scale integrated circuit technology, with h
8、undreds and thousands (or even millions) of transistors on a single chip, integrates the computers memory, logic, and control on a single chip; hence the name microprocessor, or computer on a chip. 衡量微处理器速度的几个指标: 字长(word length):计算机在一个机器周期中可同时处理的位数。 主频(megahertz): 数据总线宽度(data bus width):,4. 计算机的分类,按
9、照尺寸和处理速度,可将计算机分为大型机、小型机、个人计算机、工作站和超级计算机。,(1) 大型机(Mainframe),速度极快,达数百MIPS(数亿次); 大内存,数百MB,外存数TB; 极强的数据传输和处理能力,可连接数百至数千个终端; 采用专用操作系统; 多用于超大的商业、科学和军事应用,需处理大量数据和复杂操作; 昂贵。,(2) 小型机(minicomputer),多CPU结构,处理能力强; 中等规模的计算机,与办公桌大小相仿; 通常用于大学、工厂、科研机构; 相对便宜,(3) 个人计算机(personal computer, PC),可放在桌面上,可到处搬动; 台式、笔记本、掌上式等
10、,(4) 工作站(workstation),也是桌面上的,但有更强的图形和数学处理功能,以及同时处理多项任务的功能;适合于科学家、工程师等,特别在CAD和复杂的模拟和建模,如:三维图形的旋转、多视角观察等。,(5) 超级计算机(supercomputer),是一种十分复杂和能力极强的计算机,主要用于数百或数千个变量的快速和复杂的运算; 传统上用于科学和军事工程,如尖端武器研究、天气预报等使用复杂数学模型和模拟的应用, 现在也开始用于商业。 超级计算机每妙可进行几十亿甚至几千亿次运算,是大型机的许多倍。它不是每次只执行一条指令,而是采用并行处理技术(parallel processing)。它将
11、一个复杂问题分解为许多较小的问题,在多个处理器上同时运行,一些实验性的超级计算机采用了多达64,000个处理器。但这种分解却是不容易的,需要重新研究问题以及特殊的软件。,(6) 服务器(server computer),上述各类计算机可设计成支持网络功能,使用户可以共享文件、软件、外围设备及其它网络资源。服务器就是针对网络设计而特殊设计的,有大的内存和硬盘容量、高速的通信能力、和强力的CPU。 通过网络可实现分布式处理(distributed processing)。,5. 辅助存储器,(1) 硬盘:磁道(tracks)、柱面(cylinder),读写磁头(read/write heads)(
12、2) 软盘:扇区(sector)(3) 光盘:激光设备在光盘表面上的螺旋轨道上烧出极微小的凹点,用以记录数据。(4) 磁带,6. 输入输出设备,(1) 输入设备:keyboard, mouse, touch screens, digital scanners, voice input devices, sensors(2) Batch processing and on-line processing(3) 输出设备:阴极射线管,打印机、绘图仪、语音输出设备,7. 信息技术的发展趋势,在过去的三十年中,每十年,计算机的成本下降十倍,而能力提高100倍。 未来越来越多的日常设备将会智能化。 人们
13、与计算机打交道也会越来越容易,通过写、说、触摸、眼球的运动等。 我们可通过多媒体、网络计算机和第五带计算机的使用来考察这种可能性。,(1) 多媒体,是集成了两种或两种以上的媒体的计算机应用技术,包括文字、图像,声音、语音、全动作影像、静止影像、动画等。例:游戏。 一个简单的多媒体系统包括一台拥有32位处理器、高解析度的彩色显示器 难点在于对全动作影像的处理,压缩技术。 更适合于培训 在互连网上的应用,如交互式网页。,(2) 网络计算机,Network computers are smaller, simpler, and cheaper versions of the traditional
14、personal computer that do not store software programs or data permanently. Instead ,users download whatever software or data they need from a central computer over the Internet or organizations own internal network. Proponents of network computer systems claim that NCs could reduce the costs of owni
15、ng and operating a desktop computer by as much as 80 percent. Network computers would increase management control over the organizations computing function. Some researchers believe that centralizing conrtol over compuing would stifle worker initiative and creativity. Sun Microsystems Inc., the fall
16、 of 1996. IBM and Oracle Net PC, Microsoft and Intel , Compaq, Hp, NEC,(3) 超级芯片和第五代计算机,In addition to improving their design, microprocessors have been made to perform faster by shrinking the distance between transistor. Conventional computers are based on the Von Neumann architecture, which process
17、es information serially, one instruction at a time. In the future, more computers will use parallel processing and massively parallel processing to blend voice, images, and massive pools of data fro diverse sources, using artificial intelligence and intricate mathematical models.,3.2 信息系统结构,指采用何种计算机
18、,怎样把他们连接起来。目前,主要有两种结构。,1. 主机中心结构,传统的MIS系统结构。 主机+若干前端 哑终端,智能终端,分时处理 所有的处理都在主机中进行,提高了效率,保证了数据的安全性和一致性,适合数据处理量大的单位,如航空售票系统、铁路调度系统等。,缺点:成本和维护费用较高 1)灵活性差 2)对主机依赖强,一旦出故障,全体瘫痪 3)用户缺乏自主性,如个人文件存取不方便。,2. 客户/服务器结构,小型化(Downsizing):将原来的主机中心结构变为以微机和工作站的局域网为主的分布式处理结构。 客户/服务器模式: 1)硬件和软件 2)二者的连接:硬件和中间件(可标准化),3.3 信息系
19、统的软件,什么是软件? 软件:是控制一个计算机系统的操作的一系列详细的指令。 程序:针对计算机的一系列声明和指令。 软件的类型:1)系统软件:一系列管理计算机资源的通用程序。系统程序员 2)应用软件:为特殊应用编写的程序应用程序员3)硬件、系统软件、应用软件、用户的关系嵌套的盒子,2. 系统软件,操作系统 编译程序 实用程序,(1) 操作系统的功能,可看作是系统的总管,决定何种资源将被使用、哪个程序将被运行、活动按什么顺序发生。 有三个功能: 分配资源 调度:不一定按提交顺序执行 监视:监视计算机系统,It keeps track of each computer job and may al
20、so keep track of who is using the system, of what programs have been run, and of any unauthorized attempts to access the system.,(2) 操作系统主要概念简介,多道程序设计(Multiprogramming): permit multiple programs to share a computer systems resources at any one time through concurrent use of a CPU. By concurrent use
21、, we mean that only one program is actually use the CPU at any given moment but that the input/output needs of other programs can be serviced at the same time. Two or more programs are active at the same time, but they do not use the same computer resources simultaneously.The interruptions in proces
22、sing are caused by events that take place in the programs themselves.With multiprogramming, the CPU utilization rate is much higher.,多任务(Multitasking): refers to multiprogramming on single-user operating systems such as in personal computers. One person can run two or more programs concurrently on a
23、 single computers.虚拟存储器(Virtual Storage): A way of handling programs more efficiently by the computer by dividing the programs into small fixed- or variable-length portions with only a small portion stored in primary memory at one time.Page: A small fixed-length section of a program, which can be ea
24、sily stored in primary storage and quickly accessed from secondary storage.Segment:Advantages:,分时(Time Sharing): is an operating system capability that allows many users to share computer processing resources simultaneously. It differs from multiprogramming in that the CPU spends a fixed amount of t
25、ime on one program before moving on to another.Thousands of users are each allocated a tiny slice of computer time2 milliseconds.,多机处理(Multiprocessing): is an operating system capability that links together two or more CPUs to work in parallel in a single computer system.,(3) 编译软件,compiler and inter
26、preter source code, object code, linkage editing,(4) 实用程序(Utility programs),System software consisting of programs for routine, repetitive tasks, which can be shared by many users.,3. 图形用户界面(Graphical User Interface),The part of an operating system that users interact with that uses graphic icons an
27、d the computer mouse to issue commands and make selections.advantage: not always simple Existing GUIs are modeled after an office desktop, with files, documents, and actions based on typical office behavior, making them less useful for nonoffice applications in control rooms or processing plants.,4.
28、 PC操作系统,The PC operating systems themselves have distinctive featuressuch as whether they support multitasking or graphics workthat determine the types of applications for which they are suited.l DOS: PC-DOS and MS-DOS, Itself does not support multitasking and limits the size of a program in memory
29、to 640 Kl Windows: shell of DOSl Windows 95: A 32-bit operating system, with a streamlined graphical user interface, that features multitasking, multithreading, and powerful networking capabilities.,l Window 98: New version of the Windows operating system that is more closely integrated with the Int
30、ernet. Microsofts Internet Explorer Web browser software will become an integral part of the operating system, making the information resources of World Wide Web more accessible to computer users. l Windows NT: . for high-performance wok stations and network server. . GUI . has powerful networking,
31、multitasking, and memory management capabilities. . support existing software written for DOS and Windows. .support multiprocessing with multiple CPUs. . based on Intel and other microprocessors.,l Windows 2000:l OS/2: is used with 32-bit IBM PCs or IBM-compatible PCs with Intel microprocessors. Sup
32、ports multitasking and networking.GUI,与IBM 主机联网比较方便l UNIX: was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1969. It is an interactive, multi-user, multitasking operating system. was initially designed for minicomputers but now has versions for PCs. easily customized. machine independence. Portable. is accused
33、 of being unfriendly to users.l Mac OS 8:,5. 操作系统的选择,(1)考虑OS的发展趋势 (2)根据业务性质 (3)考虑系统配合 (4)考虑特定应用的需要 (5)中文界面 (6)考虑性能,6. 编程语言的发展,可使用许多种语言来开发应用软件 l 机器语言(machine language): A programming language consisting of the 1s and 0s of binary code. l 汇编语言(assembly language): 助记符 l 高级语言(high-level languages): C la
34、nguage,l 第四代语言(fourth-generation language): emerged in the late 1970s, and their development is still in progress. . tend to be nonprocedural or less procedural than conventional programming. . There are seven categories of fourth-generation languages: query language, report generators, graphics lan
35、guages, application generators, very high-level programming languages, application software packages, and PC tools.,7. 新的软件工具和方法,(1) Object-Oriented Programming Object Message Visual programming Classes inheritance,1.对象(Object)和对象标识(Object IDentifier, OID),对象是客观存在并能互相区分的事物,它是客观世界中概念化的基本实体,因此实体都可以视为对
36、象。一个对象是对组信息及对其操作的描述。在OO数据模型中,每个对象都有一个系统内惟一不变的标识符,称为对象标识符(OID)。 对象标识是由数据模型或程序设计语言内置的一种标识,不需要用户定义,每个对象在创建时被系统自动赋予一个标识符。,2. 属性(Attribution)和方法(Method),每个对象都定义了一组属性和方法,用以描述对象的静态和动态特性。 每个对象包含一组属性,用以描述对象的状态、组成和特性。对象的属性也可以是对象,且属性值可取单一值或一组值。如: “三角形”对象。 在对象中除定义一组属性外,还定义一组方法,用以描述对象的行为特性(动态特性)。 方法的定义与表示包括两部分,一
37、是方法的接口,给出了方法的外部表示、包含的名称、参数及结果类型;二是方法的实现,是一段可对对象进行某种操作的程序,因此方法也称操作,它可以改变对象的状态。 一个对象一般内一组属性、一组方法,再冠以一个OID组成,3. 封装(Encapsulation)和消息传递(Message Passing),在OO数据模型中,系统把一个对象的属性和方法封装为一个整体,用户只能见到对象封装界面上的信息,对象内部对用户是隐蔽的。 封装的目的是为了使对象的使用和实现分开。对象的封装性体现在以下几个方面:(1)对象具有清晰的边界:对象的内部软件(数据结构及操作)的范围限定在这个边界之内;(2)对象具有统一的外部接
38、口:对象的接口(消息模式)描述该对象与其他对象间的相互作用;(3)对象的内部实现是不公开的: 对象的实现给出了对象提供的功能细节,外部对象不能访问这个功能细节。,对象之间的相互作用是通过消息传递进行的。 消息是用来请求对象执行某一操作或回答某些信息的要求,当一个消息发送给某个对象时,稍息中包含要求接收对象去执行某些活动的信息(调用对象的相应方法),接收到消息的对象经过解释进行相应的操作,并以消息的形式返回操作结果。 一个对象可以接收多种形式的消息,一种消息能发送给多个对象。 消息一般由三部分组成:接收者消息所施加作用的对象;操作者给出消息的操作要求;操作参数消息操作时所需要的外部数据。,对象、
39、消息之间的关系如下图所示,4. 类(Class)和实例(Instance),类是具有共同属性和方法的对象的集合。 同类对象在数据结构和操作性质方面具有共性。例如大学生、硕士生、博士生是一些有共同性质的对象,可以抽象为一个学生类。在该类中不仅有共同的属性,如学号、姓名、系部、专业等,也可以定义共同的方法。 从一组有共性的对象中抽出它们的共同属性和方法,归入一个类中,以统一的方式构造现实世界的模型,是OO数据模型的重要特征。 类可以看成一个模板,可用来生成给定类型的对象。定义了一个类就意味着把可重用的程序代码放在一个公用库中,而不必反复对类中每个对象的特性进行描述。 类中的每一个对象称为该类的一个
40、实例。,5. 类层次结构和继承,类层次结构(C1ass Hierarchy Structure):在OO数据模型中,类被组织成一个有根的有向无环图,称为类层次结构。(p29),继承(Inheritance):类层次结构的一个重要特性是超类、子类以及对象间的继承性,继承性避免了一些冗余信息。一个子类继承其超类的所有属性和方法,且这种继承具有传递性。子类除继承超类中的属性和方法外,还可以在子类中定义该子类特殊的属性和方法。(变异)继承性有单重与多重继承之分,单重继承指每个子类有且仅有一个因类,如果子类有多个直接超类,则子类要从多个直接超类继承属性和方法,这种继承称为多重继承(Multiple in
41、heritance)。,6. 多态和重载,多态(Polymorphous): 类的方法有相同的接口表示,但允许有不同的多种内部实现,这种情况称为方法的多态。重载(Over loading): 在类继承结构中子类继承超类的方法,这种继承往往有多态性,即子类仅继承超类的接口表示,但它有自己的实现手段,这种情况称为方法重载。,(2)Java and the Software Revolution,l Developed by SUN Microsystems l It has the potential to revolutionize both computer software and hard
42、ware.,The Technology of Java Technically, Java is an object-oriented language, combining the data with the specific functions for processing that data. l Appletstiny Java programs that execute one small function that until now was obtained only as a part of larger applications. l Developed specifica
43、lly for use on the Internet, also being used as a general-purse programming language in other areas.,l Platform-independent, JVM (Java virtual machine): a compact program that enables the computer to run Java applications CPU (a very small virtual computer control unit) l Be able to handle text, dat
44、a, graphics, sound, and video, all within one program if needed. l Security l Has other network-specific facilities built in,How Java Is Changing the Way Software is Developed and Used It will take years before we see a large number of full-blown applications available through network in the manner
45、promised by Java l Software developer will no longer need to create separate versions for UNIX, Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, IBM mainframe, and other environmentsone version will run on all of them. l Java will change the way software is distributed. It will eliminate many software wholesale and re
46、tail organizations.,Management and Organizational Benefits of Java l Companies will no longer need to purchase hundreds or thousands of copies of commercial software to run on individual computers. Instead they will purchase one network copy made of Java applets; the way such software is paid for ma
47、y also change dramaticallycompanies could be charged for each usage much like companies are charged today for telephone or photocopying service. l Companies will no longer need to purchase such powerful personal computers for most employees.,l Organizations will have less need to set IT standard (software, hardware, telecommunications), because all development can now be done without concern for the platform on which it will be run. l Companies will have better control over both data and software.,