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高考英文复习篇章结构.doc

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1、篇章结构句子是最高一层的语法单位,又是语言表达的基本单位。句法是个语法范畴,它属于语言的组织规律,而章法则属于语言使用的范畴,或者说是言语的规律。从词素、词、词组、分句、句子讲到篇章就把语言的结构和语言的使用都概括进去了。现在我们来看一看英语的篇章是怎样构成的。句子、语段、语篇英语的篇章(Disscourse ),包括口头形式和书面形式,通常是由句子和语段(Sentence Group)构成的,即所谓“积句而成章,积章而成篇”。从英语的实际使用情况来看,人们总是以句子为话语的基本单位,围绕一定的话题,组成大大小小的言语片断来完成思想表达任务。在这里,确实存在着由句到篇的一种过渡形式语段。语段,

2、又叫句群,是由句子组成的语言表达单位,它是句子和语篇之间的中间层次。我们知道,句子在一定的语言环境中能够单独地使用,能够单独地表达相对完整的思想。但是,要表达多方面的、比较复杂的思想,往往需要把几个句子组织起来,结成更大的言语片段,以表达“一层”的意思。因此,语段是一个相对独立的较大语义单位,它既与上下语段相关联,又与上下语段相区别。正是许多这样的语段相结合,才构成了语篇。所以,语段是建筑在逻辑思维基础上的表意“层次”。构成语段的各个句子都必须围绕一个中心话题,从而具有向心的作用。这样的一群句子,通过一定的逻辑顺序组织起来,便成为一个较大的语义整体。因此,作为一个思想表达单位,语段所表达的思想

3、并不是各句意义的简单总和,而是比各句意义更高一层的有机组合。例如:True, in the woods Wolf was as brave as an honorable dog should be;but what dog is ever brave enough to stand firm against the terrors of a womans tongue?As soon as Wolf entered the house, his head bent low,his tail lay on the ground or curled between his legsHe went

4、 around the house with a guilty look, watching Dame Van Winkle out of the corner of his eye,ready to run from the room at the slightest sign of her displeasure其实,那条名叫“狼”的狗在林中也具有一条体面的狗所应有的勇气,可是哪条狗的勇气又能挡得住可怕的女人的舌头呢?“狼”只要一走进家里立刻就垂头丧气,它的尾巴不是拖在地上,就是夹在腿间。它像作贼心虚似地在屋里转来转去,从眼角里偷偷地瞟着凡温克尔太太,只要见她稍一恼怒便随时准备向门外奔去。

5、这一语段的中心意思是描写“狼”如何害怕女主人。这个语段由三个完全句组成。第一句是通过一个表示转折的并列结构,说明“狼”在树林里和在家里的表现完全不同,意思没有出来。二、三两句补充了第一句的意思,从夹着尾巴,低着头回家,到偷偷摸摸在屋里转来转去,不时偷看女主人,随时准备逃出去的情态,使第一句的意思具体化了。这样,三句结合一起就充分勾画出“狼”害怕女主人的神情,这些意义只有通过这三个句子的有机组合才能表达出来。有时,同样的句子,只是因为句与句之间的结合方式不同,以致语段所表达的意思也不同。试比较下面两组句子的意义:(1)Some of the teachers are recruited from

6、 foreign countriesThey know their respective fields well Their courses are well planned and efficiently taughtYet their way of living is different from ours有些教师是从外国聘来的。他们熟习自己的专业。所开课程富有计划性,教学效果良好。然而他们的生活方式跟我们不一样。(2) Some of the teachers are recuited from foreign countriesTheir way of living is differ

7、ent from oursYet they know their respective fields well,and their courses are well planned and efficiently taught有些教师是从外国聘来的。他们的生活方式跟我们不一样。然而他们熟习自已的专业,所开课程富有计划性,教学效果良好。在上面两个语段中,句子是基本相同的,但句子的结合方式不同,从而意义重心也不同。语段(1)的意义重心在于指出外籍教师的生活方式与我们不同;语段(2)的意义重心则在于指出外籍教师的专业水平较高和教学质量较好。语段(1)通常用于为外籍教师的某些不满情绪寻找原因的上下文中

8、,而语段(2)则通常用于为聘请外籍教师提出理由的上下文中。要注意语段和段落(Paragraph)之间的区别。语段是篇章结构的中间层次;段落是在某些语体(如记叙文和论说文)中比语段更大的意义单位。较小的段落可以只包括一个语段,但是一个段落通常是由几个语段构成的。那末,能不能说,篇章是由句子、语段、段落构成的呢?这就不可一概而论,因为有的语篇能分段落,有的不能分段落。比如对话通常不分段落,但是一个较长的对话可分为若干语段。戏剧分场景,在一个场景里不分段落,但可根据情节发展划分语段。有些小说体,分章不分段,但可划分语段。拿我们的汉语来说,古汉语有的就在形式上不分段落,但是古汉语照样可以分语段,并在语

9、段的基础上结合成为更大的篇章层次。可见,段落并不是从旬到篇必不可少的中间层次,而语段却是这样的中间层次。因此,当我们讲“语段”的时候,不要把它和“段落”混为一谈;当我们讲“语篇”的时候,也不要把“语篇”和“段落”对立起来,因为一个充分发展的段落本身也就是语篇。例如:(1)Learning a foreign language has changed (2)Not so long ago students would sit with pens in hand,writing the basic forms of a language,learning structures they would

10、 never be able to speak(3)In that same classroom today,pens and notebooks have been put away(4)The spoken sounds of a foreign tongue fill the room( 5) Today the last skill learnedwriting a foreign language comes as a natural and possible part of the total languagelearning process(6) Yet, just a few

11、years ago,the last skill learned was the first skill mastered todayspeaking a foreign tongue学习外语的方法改变了。不久以前,学生们还是坐在教室里拿着钢笔书写外语的基本形式,学习那些从来也上不了口的语言结构。而今天,在相同的教室里,钢笔和笔记本已经束之高阁了。满屋回荡着讲外语的声音。现在,写的技能是作为整个外语学习过程的最后一个环节自然而然地习得的。可是,若干年以前,那最后习得的却是今天最先习得的技能讲外语。这个段落包括三个语段:第一个语段只有一句话(句 1),它是本段的主题,“学习外语的方法改变了”。第

12、二、三两语段围绕主题分别表达两层意思。第二语段(句 2 至句 4)对比过去和现在外语课教学方法的不同;第三语段(句 5 至句6)对比过去和现在外语教学效果的不同。三个语段紧紧围绕“外语教学”这个主题,先总提,后分述,句句相接,层层相连,从而构成语篇的统一性(Unity )、连贯性(Coherence)和粘着性(Cohesion )。语段中的句际关系从逻辑意义来看,语段的句际关系可分为平列、顺序、层递、转折、总分、解释、因果等关系。构成语段的各个句子之间有时可以包含一种以上的句际关系,分述如下:1)平列关系平列关系指句与句之间处于平等并立的地位,互不相属,只是组合起来,共同说明一个话题。按平列关

13、系组织起来的句群,在次序上并不固定,如果局部改变句子的相互位置并不改变整个语段的意义。例如:All the people on our block give us troubleMrs Brown calls the police whenever we go to play ball on the streetMrs Johnson complains that skateboarding makes too much noise If we happen to stray into Mr Hardys yard, he yells at us街区里所有的人都跟我们过不去:每逢我们在街上踢球

14、,布朗太太就打电话叫警察;我们一玩溜冰车,约翰逊太太就抱怨太吵闹;如果我们偶尔误入哈代先生家的院子,他就对我们大声呵斥。在这个语段中,除了第一句为主题句外,其余三句是一种平列关系,它们处在同一层次上,共同说明第一句所表达的意思。这三个平列的句子与第一句处于一种解释和被解释的关系,从而与后者不在同一层次上。2)顺序关系顺序关系指构成语段的各个句子只能按事物的发展过程由先而后地顺序排列,不可以随便改动次序。按这种关系组织起来的句群通常表达一个过程的时间顺序或者描述固定的操作程序等。例如下面一个选段说明如何设法把掉进坑里的彼得拉上来的过程:(1) We had a hard time getting

15、 Peter out of the hole he had fallen into(2) First, we made a rope by linking our belts together(3)Then we lowered it to Peter, telling him to grasp the end(4) After he had hold of the rope,we began to pull him slowly out of the hole(5) As he came up,no one dared to speak a word( 6) Finally,we could

16、 grasp his arms,and , with a sigh of relief,we pulled him out onto the grassy bank我们费了九牛二虎之力总算把彼得从他坠入其中的洞里搭救上来。首先,我们用各人的裤带结成一根绳子,把绳子放到洞里,叫彼得抓住绳头。当他抓住绳子以后,我们便缓慢地把他往上拉。这时,我们都提心吊胆,谁也不敢吭一声。最后,我们能够抓住他的手臂了,这才松了一口气,终于把彼得拉到洞口的草地上。本段第一句是点题;第二至第六句是一种顺序关系。这五个句子结合起来共同说明第一句的内容,从而与第一句不在一个层次上。3)层递关系层递关系也是一种固定的顺序关系

17、。所不同的是按这种关系组织起来的句群是按语义的轻重、认识的深浅作由轻到重、由浅入深的排列。例如:I seem to be suffering all the illnesses imaginable: insomnia,headache,backache,indigestion,constipation and pains in the stomachTo make things still worse,Ive caught a cold, Ive got a sore throat,and Im constantly sneezing and coughing To crown it all

18、,I had an accident the other day,hurt my right shoulder,leg and knee , and nearly broke my neckIf I take a long walk,I get short of breathIn fact,I feel more dead than alive我患了一切可以想象到的疾病:失眠、头痛、背痛、腹胀、便秘、胃痛。更有甚者,我受了凉,喉咙痛,不断地打喷嚏,咳嗽。最糟糕的是,前些日子,我出了事故,伤了右肩,右腿和右膝,差点折断了脖子。现在我一动步就气喘。真是,与其说我还活着,不如说是死了。4)转折关系转

19、折关系指句与句之间存在着意义的转折。按这种关系组织起来的句群通常表达“对比”、“对照”的意思。例如:Aeroplanes have the reputation of deing dangerous and even hardened travellers are intimidated by themThey also have the grave disadvantage of being the most expensive form of transportBut nothing can match them for speed and comfort乘飞机向来以危险著称,甚至老资格的

20、旅行家也常为之担惊受怕。飞机还有一个严重的不利条件,它是最昂贵的运输工具。然而飞机既便捷又舒适,这却是其他交通工具所望尘莫及的。5)总分关系总分关系指前边的句子陈述两个或两个以上的情况,后边的句子紧接着分别对它们加以说明。用这种方式组织起来的句群能够前后呼应,条分缕析。例如:A business letter may be private or officialIn a private business letter,the writer is speaking for himself or on his own behalfIn official business letters the w

21、riter acts in his capacity as an officer in a business or some other kind of organization;usually,he does not speak on his own behalf but on behalf of the organization he represents商业函件可以由私人出面,也可由公家出面。在以私人出面的商业函件中,写信人是代表他个人说话。在以公家出面的商业函件中,写信人是以商号或其他机构的一个成员身份行事,通常不是代表个人而代表一个机构说话。6)解释关系解释关系指后面的句子是对前面的

22、句子作解释、引申、例证,使意义更加明了、具体。例如:Punctuality is a necessary habit in all public affairs of a civilized societyWithout it,nothing could ever be brought to a conclusion;everything would be in a state of chaos在文明社会的一切公务中,遵守时间是必不可少的习惯。如果没有这种习惯,那就任何事情也办不成,一切都会陷于混乱。这是两个句子之间的解释关系,第一句讲遵守时间的重要性,第二句解释为什么遵守时间如此重要。还有一

23、种情况是,一个句子受到后面一系列句子的解释。前面讲到平列关系和顺序关系时已涉及这方面的问题,下面再举一例:Americans make no distinction in greeting friends,acquaintances,or superiorsWhen Americans see close friends,casual acquaintances,or even someone they know only by sight,they are likely to say“Hi” in all casesThis does not mean that they have no m

24、ore regard for friends than for casual acquaitances It only means that “Hi” serves as a greeting for both美国人见到朋友、熟人或尊长时,打招呼的方式没有区别。他们见到亲密朋友或者泛泛之交甚至一面之交,可能都是喊一声“嗨”。这并不意味着美国人对于亲密朋友和泛泛之交不辨亲疏。这仅说明,“嗨”,作为一种招呼语,既可用于亲密朋友,也可用于泛泛之交。本段共四句,第一句为主题句,随后三句是对主题句加以解释和说明。7)因果关系因果关系也是一种解释关系,但不能反过来说,解释关系都是因果关系。上面所举的例子就

25、不是因果关系。所以因果关系可以说是一种特殊的解释关系。按因果关系组成的句群有两种排列方式:一种是从因到果。例如:Unfortunately,the Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,so close to the west coast, catch the largest share of the rain off the Pacific Ocean before it can go further inland As a result,there is too little rain for almost the whole western ha

26、lf of the United States,which lies in the“rain shadow of the mountainsIn a great part of that territory,therefore , farmers must depend on irrigation water from the snows of rains that are trapped by the mountains不幸的是,喀斯喀特山脉和内华达山脉太贴近西海岸了,截住了来自太平洋的大部分雨水,使它无法进入内陆。结果,美国的整个西半边几乎处在遮掉雨水的大山脉的“雨影”之下,雨水极少。因此

27、这个地区大部分地方的农民必须靠高山峻岭积存的雨雪供灌溉之用。另一种是从果到因。例如:The old lady was glad to be back at the block of flats where she lived Her shopping had tired her and her basket had grown heavier with every step of the way home那老太谢天谢地总算回到住所。上街买东西弄得她精疲力尽,在回家的路上,越走篮子越沉重。又例如:The quiet life of the country has never appealed t

28、o meCity born and city bred,I have always regarded the country as something you look at through a train window or something you occasionally visit during the weekend安静的乡村生活对于我从来没有吸引力。我生长在城市,总是认为乡村不过是透过火车窗子一眼掠过的东西或者是偶尔在周末去参观的地方。从语段到语篇上一节所讲的语段的句际关系通常也适用于语段和语段之间的关系。构成语篇的各个语段可以是不同类型的句群,但它们都必须围绕语篇的中心话题,而

29、不可游离于中心话题以外。例如:(1)The first invention of mankind was the wheel(2)Although no wheel forms are found in nature, undoubtedly the earliest “wheels” were smooth logs which were used for moving weights over the earths surface(3) No one recorded who he was or when it happened,but when the“first inventor ”

30、placed a wheel on an axle,mankind began to roll from one place to another(4)Records of this type of wheel have been found among Egyptian relics dating back to 2000 B Cand earlier Chinese civilizations are credited with independent invention of the same mechanism( 5) The wheel so fascinated the mind

31、of man that he has spent centuries building machines around it;yet in over 4000 years he has not changed its basic design(6) All about us we see the spinning shafts, gears,flywheels,pulleys,and rotors which are the descendents of the first wheel(7) The roaring propeller of an aircraft engine,the whi

32、rling wheel of a giant steam turbine,and the hairspring of a tiny watch are examples of the rotary motion which characterizes our mechanical world(8)It is hard to conceive of continuous motion without the wheel轮子是人类的最早发明。尽管在自然界未曾发现天然的轮状物,可是毫无疑问,最早的“轮子”就是那些在地面上搬运重物的光滑的圆木。究竟谁是那最早的发明家以及什么时候开始有这项发明,史书都无

33、所记载,但是可以肯定,当那最早的发明家把轮子驾上车轴的时候,人类就开始到处转动了。轮子的记载已在古埃及遗迹中有所发现,可以追溯到公元前 2000 年;在早期的中国文明中也曾独立发明过类似的机械装置。轮子深深扎根于人类的思想,以致几百年来人类总是围绕着轮子建造机器。然而过去 4000 多年来,人类并没有改变轮子的基本式样。在我们周围看到的纺纱轴、齿轮、飞轮、滑轮和转子,无一不是第一代轮子的后裔。轰鸣的飞机引擎推进器、飞速的蒸汽涡轮机轮盘以至小型手表里的游丝都代表着一种旋转运动,这是当今机械领域的特征。如果没有轮子,便很难想象会有继续不断的旋转运动。这篇文字分为两个语段:句(1)至句(4)为第一语

34、段;句(5)至句(8)为第二语段。第一语段的中心意思是“轮子是人类的最早发明”;第二语段的中心意思是“轮子的发明对后世的深远影响”。两个语段紧紧围绕“轮子”这一中心话题做文章,句句提到“轮子”;关键词 wheel 的重复使用成为句与句之间、语段和语段之间的重要连接纽带,从而突出地表现了这一语篇的统一性、连贯性和粘着性。当语段进入语篇时,各个语段之间存在着不同的逻辑意义关系。比如上面所讲的两个语段之间就是一种解释和引申的关系。后一语段引申了前一语段的意思。又例如在下列语篇中各个语段之间既有解释关系,又有平列关系:(1) A number of dictionaries are inappropr

35、iate for foreign students (2)The first one is the small pocket dictionary(3) Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgements of earlier,more comprehensive dictionaries(4) The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are usually rather sketchy, and few or no example sentencs are given to help

36、 the foreign student understand how the word is actually used in a sentence(5) Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary(6) This type of dictionary is often based on the idea of making wordforword translations,a notion which shows no understanding of the idiomatic nature of all languages(7) Mor

37、eover,bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled,as well as hopelessly out of date even before they are published有许多词典对于外国学生是不适用的。其中之一就是袖珍词典。这种词典通常仅是较大词典的节本,释义简略,例句很少或者根本没有例句,从而外国学生无法了解一个词在句中是怎样使用的。同样不中用的是双语词典。这种词典通常建立在逐字直译的译文基础上,忽略了一切语言都具有习语性质。再者,双语词典常常是匆忙地、草率地编出的,而且不等出版就已经过时了。这

38、篇文字共有三个语段:第一个语段(句 1)是主题句;第二个语段(句 2 至句 4)和第三个语段(句 5 至句 7)是一种平列关系,它们共同解释和引申第一语段的意义,从而二、三两语段与第一语段是一种解释和被解释的关系。又例如下面一段关于美国作家杰克伦敦成名之前的经历的文字:(1) Jack London had a very hard and difficult life(2) He was born in San Francisco on January 12,1876(3) He grew up as a street urchin,and lived on the fringes of so

39、ciety until he was seventeen(4) In 1893 he became a sailor(5) For the next four years he fought and worked his way around the world( 6) He learned the law of the survival of the strong and the death of the weak(7) He bummed his wsy across the United States, often begging his food from door to door(8

40、) When he was twentyone he decided to try and get an education,but after a few months he left school and went off to take part in the Klondyke Gold Rush in 1897(9) He hiked over the famous Chilkoot Pass In north western Canada,got the scurvy and came back emptyhanded (10) Two years later he sold his

41、 first story to the Overland Monthly in 1899(11)From that time on he made his living by writing,though at first his manuscripts were often returned by publishers,and he was sometimes without money杰克,伦敦生活极其艰舍。他在 1876 年 1 月 12 日生于旧金山,长大成了街头顽童,生活在社会最下层直到 17 岁。1893 年杰克伦敦当了水手,在随后 4 年中他努力拼搏,漂流世界各地,深深体会弱肉强

42、食的法则。在美国,他到处流浪,常常挨户乞讨。21 岁时,他决心要受点教育但不到数月他又于 1897 年辍学,参加克朗代克淘金者的行列。他徒步翻越加拿大西北部的著名奇尔科特山口,得了坏血症,旋又两手空空地回到美国。两年以后,即 1899 年,他把第一篇故事卖给了“大陆月刊”,从那以后便以写作为生,尽管一开始常遭退稿,身边一文不名。这一篇文字共有五个语段:第一语段为主题句,第二、三、四、五语段都是按时间顺序排列,从而语段之间是一种顺序关系。又例如:(1)Some of the older people in the United States face a number of serious pr

43、oblems (2) For one thing,more than ten percent of all“senior citizens”in the United States are extremely poor(3) As a matter of fact,recent statistics suggest that approximately oneseventh of all people over the age of sixtyfive live below the poverty level (4) Aged people also have more health prob

44、lems than younger people(5) A third area for concern stems from the fact that public transportation has not been designed with old people in mind;their activities are often limited to whatever is within walking distance (6) And finally,there is the separation from family,which causes loneliness(7) M

45、any older people live by themselves (this is particularly true of widows and divorced women) (8)And then there are the“forgotten five percet,”the older people who have been institutionalizedthat is,sent to“old age homes ”(sometimes called“nursing homes”) by families who either cannot or will not tak

46、e care of them在美国,有些老年人面临许多严重的问题。第一,有百分之十以上的美国“高龄公民”极其贫困。最新的统计数字表明,在 65 岁以上的人群中,实际上有七分之一的人生活在贫困线以下。第二,老年人比年轻人有更多的健康问题。第三桩值得关心的事是公共交通的设计没有考虑到老年人的需要,以致老年人的活动范围往往只限于步行所能达到的距离。最后就是老年人与家庭分离的问题,引起老年人的孤独感。许多老年人都是单独生活(寡妇和离了婚的妇女尤其如此)。此外还有那“被遗忘的百分之五”的老年人,他们由于家庭不能或不愿照顾而被送进了“养老院”,就是“老人院”(有时亦称“私人疗养院”)。这个段落由六个语段组

47、成,其中多数为单句语段。第一语段(句 1)为主题句;第二、三、四、五、六语段是按照由轻而重的意义关系排列。第二语段(句 2 至句3)谈美国老年人贫穷问题;第三语段(句 4)讲老年人的健康问题;第四语段(句 5)讲老年人的行路问题;第五语段(句 6 至句 7)讲老年人的生活孤独问题;最后,第六语段(句 8)讲无家可归的老年人问题。各段意义由轻及重,形成语段之间的层递关系。又例如:(1)Most people who have typewriters and can type well, prefer to type their letters nowadays(2) There was a fe

48、eling a generation ago that typewriting was not quite proper in social correspondence,but,in the United States at least,the prejudice against typewriting much social correspondence has disappeared(3)Many people,as a matter of fact,prefer that letters written to them be prepared on the typewriter,sin

49、ce it makes them easier to read| (4)On the other hand,the objections to the typewriter are that it is less person-al and that it suggests that the writer was in too much of a hurry to sit down and write in longhand(5)Ones handwriting is in some ways as much an expression of his personality as his voice,and in correspondence between friends a great deal of the writer is missing if he uses a typewriter(6)Therefore,the typewriter is often avoided in letters which ex

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