1、Translation theories in the west,According to Steiner (1998: 248-9), the history of discourse on translation is divided into four periods: (1) a “traditional“ period, from the beginning of the Christian era to the end of the eighteenth century, which is a period of “immediate empirical focus“ (2) a
2、period of “theory and hermeneutic inquiry“, growing out of German Romanticism around the beginning of the nineteenth century,(3) a “modern“ period, reaching well into the twentieth century, in which the influence of General Linguistics is increasingly dominant (4) the contemporary period, a cultural
3、 turn to translation studies.,a “traditional“ period,Over two millennia, only a few authors have succeeded in introducing “anything fundamental or new“. These creators and transformers include “ Saint Jerome, Luther, Dryden, Holderlin, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Nietzsche, Ezra Pound, “ (1998: 283),Ci
4、cero (西塞罗公元前 106-前43年, 古罗马政治家、雄辩家),“I saw that to employ the same expressions profited me nothing, while to employ others was a positive hindrance Afterwards I resolved to translate freely Greek speeches of the most eminent orators“. As a consequence, “I not only found myself using the best words, a
5、nd yet quite familiar ones, but also coining by analogy certain words such as would be new to our people, provided only they were appropriate“ (Robinson 1997a: 7).,西塞罗主要观点,译者应该像演说家一样，使用符合古罗马语言习惯的语言来表达外来作品的内容。 直译是缺乏技巧的表现。翻译应保留词语最内层的东西，即意思。 翻译也是文学创作。 各种语言的修辞手段彼此相通，因此翻译可以做到风格对等。 提出“解释员”式翻译和“演说家”式翻译，即直译
6、与意译。,St. Jerome,He insisted on “the accurate transmission of the meaning of the text rather than the budding orators freely ranging imagination“. He introduced “the first major shift in western translation theory“. Jerome maintained the major terms of source text and target text, original meaning an
7、d translated meaning, the concepts of literal and dynamic translation (“word for word“ and “sense for sense“). Interpreting the original meaning “correctly in order to reproduce it properly“ (Gentzler 1993: 95).,哲罗姆（347-420）,翻译不能始终字当句对，而必须采取灵活的原则。 应当区别对待文学翻译与宗教翻译。前者意译，后者直译。 正确的翻译必须依靠正确的理解。,Martin Lu
8、ther,Luther“s aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German, “the mother in her house, the children in the street, and the common man in the market“ (Robinson 19
9、97a: 25, modified). “wild, shaggy, “rebellious“,马丁路德 （1483-1546）,翻译必须采用人民的语言。 翻译必须注重语法和意思的联系。译者不能与语法背道而驰，但更应该注意意思的理解和表达。 翻译必须遵循意译七原则。 翻译必须集思广益。,John Dryden,In the Preface to his translation of Ovid“s Epistles (1680): “metaphraseturning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into
10、 another“. “paraphrase, or translation with latitudewhere the authors words are not so strictly followed but his sense”. “imitation, where the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and the sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion“,德莱顿（1631-1700）,翻译是艺术 翻译必须掌握原作特征
11、翻译必须考虑读者 译者必须绝对服从原作的意思，在译文的措词上可以有自由，意义上却毫无自由。 翻译可以借用外来词 翻译分三类：逐字译、意译、拟作,2. German Romanticism,At the beginning of the nineteenth century, a more philosophical and less empirical, formation began to open within discourses on translation theory. Philology provided a range of new and exotic texts and a
12、llowed the experts to produce translations aimed primarily at other experts, not the general public. Romanticism exalted the translator “as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the genius of his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating“ (Bassnett-M
13、cGuire 1980: 65). The stress on both the original author and the translator as being artists was not part of traditional discourse formations.,Schlegel wrote that, in translating Homer, it was necessary “to get away from the notion of literal precision so commonly associated with fidelity“, because
14、“truth must be the translator“s highest, indeed virtually his only, mandate“,Friedrich Schleiermachers “On Different Methods of Translating“ -“the major document of romantic translation theory, and one of the major documents of Western translation theory in general“. Schleiermacher distinguished bet
15、ween the “interpreter (Dolmetscher) who works in the world of commerce“, and the “translator proper (Ubersetzer) who works in the fields of scholarship and art“.,For the true translator, there are only two choices: to “either (1) disturb the writer as little as possible and move the reader in his di
16、rection, or (2) disturb the reader as little as possible and move the writer in his direction“,Schleiermacher“s preference was for the former. “If the target-language readers are to understand, they must grasp the spirit of the language native to the author, they must be able to gaze upon the author
17、s inimitable patterns of thinking and meaning; but the only tools that the translator can offer them in pursuit of these goals are their own language, which nowhere quite corresponds to the authors, and his own person, his own inconsistently clear understanding of, and vacillating admiration for, th
18、e author.“,施莱尔马赫（1768-1834）,翻译分笔译和口译 翻译分真正的翻译（文学作品和科学作品的翻译，笔译）和机械的翻译（实用性的翻译，口译） 翻译必须正确理解语言思维的辩证关系。 翻译可以有两种途径。采用任何一种都必须坚持到底。,3. The Early and Middle Twentieth Century,Discussion in English of translation theory during the first half of the twentieth century continued to be dominated by the themes of
19、Victorian discourse on translation, “literalness, archaizing, pedantry and the production of a text of second-rate literary merit for an elite minority“,After the Second World War, translation theory was profoundly influenced by Noam Chomsky“s concepts of “deep structure“ and “surface structure“, an
20、d the first steps in machine translation. “In this view translation is a “recoding“ or change of surface structure in representation of the - non-linguistic and ultimately universal - deep structure underlying it.“ Chomsky“s theories strongly influenced “the science of translating“ as understood dur
21、ing the 1960s by Eugene Nida and later, during the late 1970s by the German school. As Snell-Hornby elsewhere explains, the German school “at least in its early days, aimed at making the study of translation rigorously scientific and watertight, and, like linguistics, it adopted views and methods of
22、 the exact sciences, in particular mathematics and formal logic. Basically, translation was viewed as linguistic transcoding or substitution, whereby Elements a1, a2, a3 of the inventory of linguistic signs L1 are replaced by Elements b1, b2, b3 of the inventory of linguistic signs L2.“,What Fawcett
23、 describes as “the heroic age“ of linguistically oriented translation studies extends from the mid-1950s to the mid-1980s (Fawcett 1997: Foreword). Particular mention should be made of the work of J.C. Catford (1965) and Katharina Reiss (1989). These extremely valuable studies focused on the word, p
24、hrase or sentence level.,a list of great theorists,Roman Jakobson (雅可布逊) （布拉格学派） John Catford (卡特福德) （伦敦学派） Peter Newmark (纽马克) Eugene A Nida (奈达) Wolfram Wilss (威尔斯),卡特福德,A Linguistic Theory of Translation 运用Halliday的“阶和范畴语法”（Scale ad Category Grammar） 一. 翻译的性质 二. 翻译的类别 三. 翻译的对等问题,一,“translation is
25、 the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language.“ 翻译是把一种语言的文字材料替换成另一种语言的对等的文字材料。关键词：对等语 翻译理论的中心任务：defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence (确定对等语的性质和条件),全文翻译(full translation)和部分翻译(partial translation) 完全翻译 (total translati
26、on) 和有限翻译 （restricted translation）,对等问题,一方面：翻译对等是一种以经验为依据的现象。 行文对等（textual equivalence） 形式对等（formal correspondence） 对等概率-翻译规则 在翻译中，译者要选择的不是具有“相同意义”的对等语，而应是具有相同或相似场合特征的对等语,纽马克,翻译类别 翻译性质 翻译规则 意义的流失,Peter Newmark,He argues that the “central problem of translating.has always been whether to translate li
27、terally or freely“. Semantic translation: “is personal and individual, follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact“. Communicative translation, on the other hand, “attempts to render th
28、e exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership“ (Newmark 1988: 46-7). Informative and vocative (non-literary) texts require communicative translation; expressive (literary) texts tend more towards th
29、e semantic method of translation (Newmark 1981: 44).,类别,交际性翻译 译作所产生的效果应力求接近原作，首先忠于译语和译文读者，即使原语屈从译语和译语文化，不给读者留下任何疑点和难懂之处，属欠额翻译 语义性翻译 屈从原语文化和原作者，翻译原文的语义，只在原文的内涵意义构成理解的最大障碍时才加以解释。属超额翻译 直译 死译,翻译性质,翻译既是科学，又是艺术。 有标准化的译名，统一译名 还有非标准化的东西,信息流失,原文涉及本国独特风俗、地理、历史的。 在文体、感情色彩、抽象程度、评价尺度等方面同时对等很难 译者和原作者不同的语义理论和价值观念,
30、尤金 奈达（1914-）,Toward a Science of Translating(翻译科学探索) The Theory and Practice of Translation（翻译理论与实践） Translating Meaning（译义）,理论原则 翻译的性质 翻译的功能 语义分析,理论原则,语言的共性可译性 差别在于对语言的需求 翻译的首要任务是使读者看了译文就能一目了然。要流畅自然，读者无须原语的文化背景知识就能看懂。,翻译的性质,Nida：translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the close
31、st natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. 所谓翻译，就是从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息。译文没有绝对的对等。 reproducing the message; equivalence rather than identity; a natural equivalent; the closest equivalent; the style; the priority of context
32、ual consistency over verbal consistency; the priority of dynamic equivalence over formal correspondence; 翻译的四个标准：达意、传神、措辞通顺自然、读者反应相似 翻译是一种“再创造”，而不是“再生产”,翻译的功能,社会语言学和语言交际功能读者为中心 灵活再现原文：语言交际的内容，交际的参与者，说话写作的过程，交际使用的具体语言，传递内容的方式。 表达功能（expressive function） 认识功能（cognitive function） 人际关系功能（interpersonal fu
33、nction） 信息功能（informative function） 祈使功能（imperative function） 司事功能（performative function） 表感功能（emotive function） 美学功能（aesthetic function）,语义分析,语法意义、所指意义、内涵意义 内涵意义 与特定的语言使用者联系在一起 （不同阶层） 与使用的场合联系在一起 与语言环境有关（green with envy, green worker ）,Contemporary time,The first was the questioning of Chomskys ling
34、uistic theories by linguists themselves. The second was the development of a number of new and dynamic fields within linguistics, such as “discourse analysis, text linguistics, sociolinguistics, computational linguistics, prototype semantics, and other assorted wonders“ (Pym 1992: 184),French struct
35、uralist and post-structuralist thought (Nida 2001: 110): “Language is not the problem. Ideology and politics are“ This has led to a separation between linguistic and cultural approaches to translation in the last quarter of the twentieth century.For some translation scholars, indeed, it has seemed t
36、hat “strictly linguistic theories have been superseded, as translation has come to be considered in its cultural, historical and sociological context“,Emergence of Translation Studies,“the systematic study of translation.not as an intrinsic part of the foreign language teaching process, but for its
37、own sake“ The field of “Translation Studies“ was decisively defined by the American scholar, James Holmes, in his 1972 paper on “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies“. There Holmes rejoiced that, “ there has been a new and increasing interest in translation after the Second World War, “particu
38、larly from the adjacent fields of linguistics, linguistic philosophy, and literary studies, but also from such seemingly more remote disciplines as information theory, logic and mathematics“ Holmes divides Translation Studies into two major branches, “Pure“ and “Applied“, and then sub-divides the “P
39、ure“ into two further sub-branches: “Theoretical“ and “Descriptive“ Translation Studies.,Here I wish to briefly note five areas which have led to broader approaches to translation beyond the static prescriptive models of the1960s: skopos theory, polysystem theory, descriptive translation theory, pos
40、tcolonial theory and feminism.,Translation Studies returns the attention to the Receptor side of the diagram. Skopostheory begins by seeing translation as a purposeful “action“, which leads to “a result, a new situation, and possibly to a “new“ object“. The aim of the translational action, and the w
41、ay in which it is realized is not random, but must be “negotiated with the client who commissions the action“. The source text is “the basis for all the hierarchically ordered relevant factors which ultimately determine the translatum the resulting translated text“, but, because the target text is o
42、riented towards the target readership, “it is this which ultimately defines its adequacy“. As Vermeer insists: “It therefore follows that source and target texts may diverge from each other quite considerably not only in the formulation and distribution of the content but also as regards the goals w
43、hich are set for each, and in terms of which the arrangement of the content is in fact determined“ (Vermeer, 2000: 221-3).,Polysystem theory pays attention to the ways in which source texts are received by the target culture and its “literary polysystem“. Even-Zohar emphasises: (a) “the way source t
44、exts are selected by the target literature, the principles of selection never being uncorrelatable with the home co-systems of the target literature“, and (b) “the way in which translated works adopt specific norms, behaviours, and policies - in short, their use of the literary repertoire - which re
45、sults from their relations with the other home co-systems“ (Venuti 2000: 192-3).,多系统论”-伊塔马埃文佐哈尔教授 认为文学以及文化等社会符号现象都是一个开放式的多系统，即一个系统网（network of systems），包括各种关系，如：中心与边缘（center vs. periphery），经典化与非经典化(canonized vs. non-canonized) , 来源与目的（source vs. target）等。这些因素都在为能成为主导因素而不断地斗争，于是，这些因素在文学系统中的地位也就在它们的不断
46、斗争中从中心到边缘不断地进行转化。 翻译文学就是文学系统中的因素之一。对于一些大的或“强势”文学来说，翻译文学只能处于边缘地位。翻译文学在以下条件下处于中心地位，成为主流文学的一部分： （1） 某一文学处于未成形发展的初期，也就是说该文学还处于“年轻”阶段（即发展初期）； （2） 某一文学（在一个大的相关文学群内）还处于“边缘”或处于“软弱”阶段或两者兼而有之： （3） 某一文学处于转折时期，危机时期或出现文学真空时期。 可见，翻译文学的介入（interference）是不可避免的，是文学史上不可分割的一部分。翻译文学处于中心地位时，译作将会接近原作，体现“充分性（adequacy）”；翻译文
47、学处于边缘地位时，译作与原文之间就会产生更大的偏差（discrepancy）。,Gideon Toury“s descriptive translation theory agrees with skopos theory in seeing “translatorship“ as fulfilling “a function allotted by the communityin a way which is deemed appropriate.“ But he extends Even-Zohars discussion by his emphasis on norms, particu
48、larly the literary norms of the receiving literature. Toury describes norms as “the general values or ideas shared by a community -as to what is right and wrong, adequate and inadequate“, which are the basis for sanctioned “performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situat
49、ions“ (Toury 2000: 199).,描写性翻译研究在研究翻译的过程、产物、以及功能的时候，把翻译放到政治、意识形态、经济、文化之中去研究”（Descriptive translation studieswhen they attend to process, product, and functionset translation practices in time and, thus by extension, in politics, ideology, economics, culture.） 描写翻译理论根本不关心直译意译，他们关心的是把翻译语境化（to contexua
50、lize translation），也就是从宏观的角度研究翻译。1. 是什么因素促使译者选中了这篇著作翻译成另一种语言？2. 译文在译入语文化中起到了什么作用？ 描写翻译学派对翻译有两个基本的认识。一个是翻译的“不完整性”（partiality），二是任何翻译都经过了译者程序不等的摆布（manipulation）。,Postcolonial (Niranjana 1992, Robinson 1997b, Bassnett and Trivedi 1999) and feminist (Levine 1991, Simon 1996) translation theories see the
51、relationship between source and target not as a relationship of equals, but as one containing a basic quality of power. In both of these theories, the receptor (the colonizer, patriarchal society) claims the moral authority of domination over which texts are chosen and how they are to be translated. Translators who attack these ideological norms become, in various ways, “subversive scribes“ seeking to liberate and transform Others.,
