1、Phonology,IPA transcription for the English consonants,English vowels in the CV chart,Diphthongs,Cardinal vowels,a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages,Manner of artic
2、ulation,Plosives Fricatives affricates Nasals Bilabial Alveolar Dental Velars,Place of articulation,interdentals Labiodental palato-alveolar Alveopalatal Glottal Approximants Lateral Liquids liquids,A three-term description, is a voiced palato-alveolar affricate, f is a voiceless labio-dental fricat
3、ive, is a voiced velar nasal and so on. However, for l , we need a slightly more detailed description: l is a voiced alveolar lateral approximant and is a voiced alveolar non-lateral or retroflex approximant.,Diacritics,Aspiration: a raised h: ph th kh Unaspirated: a raised equals sign, as in p= t=
4、k= Transcriptions for pit and spit: pht and sp=ta retroflex l is made in the same place as the English retroflex but with the lateral manner of articulation characteristic of l. Retroflex sounds are found in a large number of languages of the Indian subcontinent and in Australia amongst other places
5、. Uvular and pharyngeal sounds are made with places of articulation not found in English. Uvular sounds are like velars, except that the tongue body moves further back and a little lower to articulate against the uvula. Pharyngeal sounds are common in Arabic (although they are encountered in languag
6、es throughout the world). They are made by bringing the tongue root back towards the back of the throat, often with constriction of the throat (exercises 1, 2 and 3). Table 2 Consonantal sounds arranged by place and manner of articulation PLACE MANNER bilabial labiodental interdental alveolar palato
7、alveolar palatal retroflex velar uvular pharyngeal plosive p b t d c k g q g fricative f v sz j x r affricate t d nasal m n n liquid l r glide w j Sounds and suprasegmentals 35,Nasalisation: result of allowing air to passthrough the nasal passage, as though for a nasal consonant such as n, while sti
8、ll letting the air flow through the mouth. A nasal vowel is indicated by a diacritic symbol placed over the vowel, e.g. .,Phonological variations,Definition: the existence within the speech of a single community of more than one possible realisation (or variant) of a particular sound,Loss of the glo
9、ttal fricative h in the northern English,hammer being pronounced ham or am. different social class groups in Bradford use the two different possibilities h or (i.e. nothing),Suprasegmentals,Syllable: a consonant or set of consonants followed by a vowel followed by another consonant or set of consona
10、nts, e.g. cat kt orsprings spz A syllable must have a nucleus or peak; the nucleus of a syllable can be a consonant. For instance, the word table is disyllabic, containingthe syllables te and bl.,Prosodic phenomena,Stress: primary, secondary stress; lexical stress, phrasal stress Tone (pitch): high-
11、level, rising, fall-rise, fallingneutral; tone language Intonation: rising, rising-falling, falling, etc.,Procedure for analyzing the use of a linguistic variable,Make recordings Listen and note down the pronunciation Calculate the % of the individual use of the variants Group the scores Choose a me
12、ans to measure (educational background, gender, age, social class etc),Other variations,Social Stylistic Professional Ethnic etc,Linguistically determined variation,Consonant cluster deletion: -t/-d deletion:e.g.best friend bst frnd bs frndcold weather kold w kol wmost of the time most v tam mos tam
13、ground attack rand tk ran tk,Variation and language change,Coexistence of old and new forms William Labovs study of r in New York (from r-less to r-full): fourth floor,Sound change,Diachronic Synchronic Transition (route by which sounds change),Consonant change,Flapping: from voiceless to voiced,lit
14、ter: lt li bitter: bt bi get off: tf ef is an unrounded central low vowel, somewhat lower than ,Change from t to ,butter: bt b plot: plt pl,Loss of / and /,thumb: m fm nothing: n nf bother: b bv breathe: bri briv,Change from plosive to fricative,Better bt bs Locker lk lx Steady stedi stezi,Loss of h
15、,hand: hand and house: haus aus Harry: ha a,Loss of the glide j before u,tune, duke, new, enthusiasm, resume, solution New Zealand: njuzilnd nuzilnd student: stjudnt studnt avenue: vnju vnu,Vowel change,Australian English: i : eat the peanuts is pronounced tpnts Philadelphia: e: mad, bad and glad ar
16、e respectively pronounced as me:d, bed and led,Chang of triphthongs,sure: player: plei pl fire: fi f tower: tau t,Vowel mergers and vowel splits,toe tu tow turose uz rows uzmoan mun mown mun A vowel split in London:push, bush, pull ucup, luck, mud a, and in Standard British English (RP),_f# laugh, s
17、taff, half gaffe, faff, naff _fC craft, after, shaft, daft faffed _ path, bath math(s), Cathie _st last, past, nasty enthusiast, aster _sp clasp, grasp asp _sk ask, flask, basket gasket, mascot _sl castle tassel, hassle,_ns dance, chance, France romance, cancer, fancy _nt aunt, grant, slant rant, an
18、t, canter _n(t) branch, blanch mansion, expansion _mpl example, sample ample, trample _nd demand, remand stand, grand, panda,Suprasegmental change,Stress shift:a. They won the kntst easily (noun)b. She wanted to kntst the case in court (verb)c. Give me your drs (UK, noun)d. She demanded the right to
19、 drs the audience (UK, verb),Phone, phoneme & allophone,Phone: a phonetic unit The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. such as I:, f, l, l, s, p, ph and k in the words: leaf, feel, peak, and speak.,Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do,
20、e.g. bit & bet ,but when you replace aspirated p with unaspirated p or vice versa, you will at most be considered as speaking with a foreign accent, but will not be misunderstood.,Phoneme,a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is repr
21、esented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pit, tip and spilt.,The English phoneme inventory,28 consonants:Plosives p b t d k g tr dr Fricatives f v s z h ts dz Nasals m n Approximants w l j,English vowel inventory,20 vowels Short:
22、a Long:i u: Diphthongs:e a a ou ,Allophone,the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.,Phonemic contrast,different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in bet and pet,Complementary distribution,allophones of the same phoneme are in complem
23、entary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p.,Minimal pairs,When two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings
24、, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.,Level of analysis,Phonetic Phonemic,Syllable,for a word like quilt k w I l t： (sigma: a syllable)Onset (k w)Rhyme (I l t)Nucleus (I)Coda (l t),Formation of a syllable,Phonotactic cons
25、traints Sonority Principle spl-, str-, skw- and so on *sbr-, *sdw- or *sgl- sn-, sm-, sl-, sj-, sw-.,Maximal Onset Principle,when there is a choice as to where to place aconsonant, we put it into the onset rather than the coda s n /t r e l (correct) s n t /r e l (incorrect),Phonological process,Vowe
26、l reduction:photograph futgrf photography ftgrfi photographic futgrfk,Underlying representations,a. photograph /futgrf/ b. photography /foutgrf/ c. photographic /futgrfk/SR is derived from the UR.,Phonological features,Binary features (distinctive feature): voicedshowing the value/specification such
27、 as +VD, - ASP etcunderspecified 0ASP for redundant,Constraints in phonology,Voiceless plosives are always aspirated; No sound is ever aspirated immediately after /s/.,A problem,The two constraints clearly conflict with each other: when applied to a sequence such as /sp/, the first constraint would
28、require the output /sph/, while the second constraint would require the output /sp/.,Solving the problem,Optimality Theory:The conflict is resolved by allowing one of the conflicting constraints to outrank or overridethe other.,Ranking of constraints,In English, the constraint NOASP(S) wins out over
29、 ASPPLOS, and we can impose the ranking NOASP(S) ASPPLOS,General idea of OT,All phonological patterning is the result ofranked constraints. All the constraints are available to all languages. The ranking of constraints operative in thelanguage ensures that only one output is permitted, the optimal c
30、andidate (hence theterm Optimality Theory).,Faithfulness constraints,Dont add or remove sounds gratuitously (for no reason) because they would violate constraints to different degrees; orviolate the Faithfulness constraints that we are assuming are highly ranked in all languages. The best (optimal) candidate is the one that violates the least highly ranked constraint.,What phonological changes?,in April in Britain on paper on average thin cakes thin material thin excuse,The End,
