1、Phonetics & Phonology,The medium of all languages is sound. Phonetics & Phonology They approach the speech sounds from two different aspects.,1. How speech sounds in a given language are articulated or produced? (phonetics) 2. Why certain sounds are more frequently used than others? (phonetics),Phon
2、etics is the science which studies the production, transmission and reception of the sounds of human speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A. Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) B. Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) C. Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学),3. How the sounds a
3、rticulated are organized into a system of contrasts, which are analyzed in terms of phonemes, distinctive features, or other phonological units? (phonology),Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound pattern and function in one or more languages. The sounds are organized into a sys
4、tem of contrasts, which are analyzed in terms of phonemes, distinctive features, or other such phonological units.,Sound pattern:(语音模式) 1. sound inventory (音位表): the set of sounds in a given language. 2. the permissible arrangements or sequences of these sounds in syllables or words. 3. the processe
5、s for adding, deleting, or changing sounds.,Phonology,1. segmental phonology 音段音位学analyze speech into discrete segments, such as phonemes 2. Supra segmental phonology 超音段音位学study units which are larger than the phonemes, including syllable, word, phrase, clause or sentence.,The principal supra segme
6、ntal or prosodic (韵律音系学) features are length, stress, intonation and tone. Tempo 音速(speech rate), rhythm, juncture音渡, nasalization, vowel harmony元音和谐, are also sometimes included under this heading.,Phonetics,1. Speech organs (P.26) 2. The IPA P.27 3. The phonetic Description of the Consonants (P.29
7、) 4. Vowels and Cardinal Vowel SystemP.46 5. Phonemes and allophones,Speech organs,1. The air-stream mechanism 气流机制 2. The vocal cords 声带 3. The pharynx 咽 4. The soft palate 软腭 5. The roof of the mouth 口腔顶部 6. The tongue 7. The teeth 8. The lips,2. The IPA-to record all the sounds in languages,1886
8、the International Phonetic Association 1886 Otto Jespersen The present system of IPA by D. Jones in 1920s The latest version in 2005 1. Listen to the articulation of IPA,The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It w
9、as devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.The IPA is used by foreign language students and teachers, linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, singers, actors, lexicographers, artificial language enthusiasts (conlanger
10、s), and translators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft pala
11、te, an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the IPA may be used.,IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two basic types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter t may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter, t, or with a letter plus diacritics
12、, t, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of 2008, there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics, and four prosodic marks (韵律标记）in the IPA.,3. The phonetic Description of the Consonants (P.2
13、9) According to the methods of articulation, sounds in a given language have been divided into different categories. Consonants vowels,3.1 ConsonantsA. The actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract. “Manners of Arti
14、culation”B. Where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. “ Places of Articulation”,“Manners of Articulation”,1. stop/plosive 闭塞音 9stop/ nasal stop 2. fricative 摩擦音 9 3. (median) approximant 无摩擦延续音3 4. lateral / approximant 边音 1 5. affricate 塞擦音 2,Plosive: co
15、mplete closure of the articulators / sudden release of air Nasal: the air goes out through the nasal cavity Fricative: a close approximation of two articulations so that the air is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.,Approximant: one articulator is close to another, but without t
16、he vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air stream is produced. Lateral: air goes out through the incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.,Trill: an articulator is set vibrating by the air stream. Tap/ flap: On P. 31. letter / dir
17、ty Affricate: a stop followed by a fricative at the same place of articulation. E.g church, judge,“ Places of Articulation”,1 bilabial 双唇音 4 w/m/p/b 2. labiodental 唇齿音 2 f/v 3. dental 齿音 2 4. alveolar齿龈音 6 l/n/s/z/t/d 5.post-alveolar/ palato-alveolar 后齿龈音 5 6. palatal 舌面中音 1 7. velar软腭音 3 8. glottal
18、 声门音 /喉音 1,Listen to the pronunciation of the international phonetic alphabet by Prof. Zhang,4. Vowels and Cardinal Vowel System P.46,Pure vowels & gliding vowels backness (horizontal dimension), height (vertical dimension), and roundedness (lip position). 1. Front, central, back 2. close, mid-close
19、, mid-open, open 3. rounded and unrounded 4. Tense (long )and lax (short),Tense vowels are articulated with greater muscular effort, slightly higher tongue positions, and longer durations than lax vowels.,Here are the tense and lax vowels together in one chart:,Front / central / back 4 Front vowels
20、5 back vowels 3 central,2 Close Vowels: /i:, u: / 2 Mid-close:/I, u/ 4 between mid-close and Mid-open: 2 half-Open: 2 open,Rounded: Central: Unrounded:,Cardinal Vowels,P. 33 For Jones, the cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a f
21、rame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.,Features,1. the quadrilateral diagram 2. the 8 cardinal vowels and a set of secondary cardinal vowels 3. representing extreme points of a theoretical vowel space,/i:/ D. Jones:close front unrounded A.C. Gimson:Near to
22、C1 than to C2 with a slight glide from a position near to /I/,Listen to Cardinal Vowels. Explain the different transcriptions used in middle school and high school.,schwa,An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in some languages, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. Such vowels are
23、often transcribed with the symbol , regardless of their actual phonetic value.,Consonants in English,How many consonants and vowels are there in English? 24 consonants / 20 vowels-RP,RP: Received Pronunciation,P.34,RP: British Received Pronunciation The history,The base of RP was educated South-East
24、ern English pronunciation, as used by the upper classes throughout the country. BBC recommended this type of pronunciation for its announcers because it was the one which was widely understood and which excited least prejudice of a regional kind. D.Jones in 1917,A.C. Gimson: (1980) Jones definition
25、of RP is no longer valid. RP: retaining its underlying South-Eastern English Characteristics, is applicable to a wider sample of contemporary speaker, especially those of the middle generations. E.g. Australia longaccomplish,Main types of British RP,According to Gimson: Conservative RP: old generati
26、on General RP: most commonly in use and typified by the pronunciation adopted by the BBC Advanced RP: young people or exclusive social groups, mostly of the upper classes.,Allen Cruttenden in 1994 General RP Refined RP Regional RP,J.C. WellsProf. of Phonetics and PhonologyUniversity of London Colleg
27、e,The pronunciation of RP differs from that of various accents of British English and Standard American English.,With the manners of articulation and the places of articulation we will not only learn how to pronounce consonants easily, but also make a comparison of the articulation of consonants in
28、different languages. Listen to the articulation of consonants of standard pronunciation of British English (RP) and Standard Chinese. SS read the Paper American English,Result,The focus of attention of Chinese Learners ought to be given to the precise pronunciation of the alveolar and near-alveolar
29、consonants. Alveolar: t,d s, z, n, l Post-alveolar: r Palato-alveolar: cheap, change, fish, occasion,The Chinese students pronunciation of RP vowels,中外学生 外语元音学习分析,南开大学 石 锋温宝莹 王 萍 时秀娟 曹巧玲 高玉娟 夏全胜 梁春基,五、中国学生学习外语的元音发音,中国学生学习英语的元音发音,英语元音格局图,英语的一级元音有/、/五个 顶点元音/ /连线呈等腰钝角三角形或锐角三角形 后高元音/比较靠前，/比较靠上靠后，格局整体分布区
30、域比较小 从位置的前后来看，一种是/在/前;一种是/在/后 从位置的高低来看 ，/ /在上部 ，/ /在中间 ，/在下部,图二、四名美国学生所发的英语元音格局图 Fig.2 English vowel pattern produced by four American students,中国学生所发的英语元音与汉语元音声位图对比,格局框架并不呈现英语元音格局等腰钝角或钝角三角形的形状，而是等边三角形形状 顶点/ /的位置与英语格局中的位置接近；顶点 / /与其在英语格局中的位置相比靠下，/u /趋后 ，格局区域在横向纵向上都有扩展 从/ /的相对位置来看，很不稳定,分布不平衡，相互距离也有大有
31、小,变化较大,Questions,Why different transcriptions are used? P.38,Questions,3.Why the different articulations of P in park and speak are recorded the same P in English but different in Chinese? Because different distinctive features are employed in different languages.,Phonology-phoneme / allophonephonol
32、ogical rulesassimilation,/ / enclose phonemic transcription enclose phonetic ( allophonic ) transcriptionP.38 Broad and Narrow transcriptions,Questions,3.Why the different articulations of P in park and speak are recorded the same P in English but different in Chinese? Because different distinctive
33、features are employed in different languages.,关于送气与否我有个疑问：就speak里的p来说，其不送气，读起来和/b/这个音有差别吗？ 而/p/,/b/应该分别是清音和浊音，这是不是说不送气可以让清音变浊音呢？ 另外，中文里面“拼”“宾”为什么一定要以送气与否来划分呢，用pinbin不是也可以吗？ 1. 有差别, bee/ obey 2. 不送气不能将清音转变成浊音 3. 因为汉字的拼音特点（但音节）决定， 汉语中有pin，但没有bin。,1 aspirated / unaspirated The pronunciation of the plos
34、ive is usually accompanied by a strong puff of breath or aspiration between the release of plosive and the beginning of the followed word. Peak, cake, tea Speak, skate, student,2. voiced/ voiceless P. 34 The air pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. When the vocal folds
35、 vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. Obey, again, addition,Always voiceless / p, t, k, f, s, h Usually voiced / b, d, g, v, z, / m, n, w, r, l/ vowels/ Usually voiced sounds are in fact voiced only when between vowels or other voiced sounds.Obey, again, addition,
36、Bee, gate, do Tribe, dog, absurd When the voiced sounds occurs at the beginning of a word and end of a word, they can be voiceless (devoiced) 在单词开头和结尾出的浊音出现变体，声带不振动，不发音。,Why / p, k, t/ in Speak, skate, student are not devoiced / b, g, d/? Bee, gate, do Tribe, dog, absurd There is no “ sbeak, sgate,
37、sdudent” in the language of English. Aspiration is not a distinctive feature in English.,Why / b, g, d/ in bee, gate, do are not devoiced /p, k, t/? Bee/pea Kate/gate Do/to A bee/ a pea A Kate/ a gate To do/ two to,Chinese,拼 宾 单音节字 好吧 b 八个g,From phonetics to Phonology,P.37 Co articulation and Phonet
38、ic Transcriptions Phoneme allophones,Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions,P. 37 E.g. schwa again/ ago / acknowledge (raised-tongue)asleep / arrive ( neutral position)mother / banana ( lowered tongue position),Here is a chart that compares phones and phonemes:,A phone is ,One of many possible s
39、ounds in the languages of the world. The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech. Pronounced in a defined way. Represented between brackets by convention. Example: b, j, o,A phoneme is ,A contrastive unit in the sound system of a particular language. A minimal unit that serves to dist
40、inguish between meanings of words. Pronounced in one or more ways, depending on the number of allophones. Represented between slashes by convention. Example: /b/, /j/, /o/,Minimal pair,P. 39 Here are examples of the phonemes /r/ and /l/ occurring in a minimal pair: rip /lip The phones r and l contra
41、st in identical environments and are considered to be separate phonemes. The phonemes /r/ and /l/ serve to distinguish the word rip from the word lip.,In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek:“a sound uttered“) is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts
42、between utterances.1,Thus a phoneme is a group of slightly different sounds which are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example of a phoneme is the /k/ sound in the words kit and skill.,(In transcription, phonemes are placed between slashe
43、s, as here.) Even though most native speakers dont notice this, in most dialects, the k sounds in each of these words are actually pronounced differently: they are different speech sounds, or phones (which, in transcription, are placed in square brackets).,In our example, the /k/ in kit is aspirated
44、, k, while the /k/ in skill is not, k. The reason why these different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme in English is that if an English-speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using k in skill might sound odd, but the word would
45、 still be recognized.,By contrast, some other phonemes could be substituted (creating a minimal pair) which would cause a change in meaning: producing words like still (substituting /t/), spill (substituting /p/) and swill (substituting /w/). These other sounds (/t/, /p/ and /w/) are, in English, di
46、fferent phonemes,British Linguist (1941now) Honorary Professor of Linguistics at Bangor Crystal studied English at University College London between 1959 and 1962 The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language,Research Interests A former editor of several linguistics journals and series, his research intere
47、sts have included Shakespeares language, linguistic diversity, and the application of linguistics in internet contexts. Recent publications include the second editions of The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English Language, The Language Revolution, The Stories of English, and Pronouncing Shakespeare.,Pho
48、nemes and allophones P.55,1. English has 20 vowels and 24 consonants. 2. The number of sounds actually produced in speech is practically infinite because each of these can be pronounced in many slightly different ways. (P.39),at / add let / told / please Key kiss/ Cop cook, coo/ cup, curl Top/ stop/
49、 bottle/ button/ trap,Only those “sounds” which serve to distinguish one word from another are regarded as belonging to different groups, or to different phonemes in our technical term. That is to say, the replacement of one phoneme of an utterance by the other will alter the meaning of it. Lap, cap, tap/ lake, cake, take,“The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning”. -A. C. Gimson The members of a phoneme are often called phones or allophones.,
